BIOCHEM Midterm Study Cards Flashcards
(303 cards)
1
Q
what is INORGANIC CHEMISTRY?
A
chemistry of elements, reactivity, and atomic relationships that are based on elements and their properties
2
Q
what is ORGANIC CHEMISTRY?
A
chemistry of CARBON, it’s reactivity and relationships with other elements and the compounds of carbon makes
3
Q
what is an ATOM?
A
single nucleus made of protons and neutrons, with a cloud of orbiting electrons
4
Q
what determines the ELEMENT of the atom?
A
count of protons in a nucleus
5
Q
what is SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES?
A
means atomic particles are divisible
6
Q
what is the structure of an atomic particle
A
a nucleus with an orbital cloud of electrons. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons
7
Q
name the smallest unit –> largest unit
A
particle –> atom –> element –> molecule –> macromolecule
8
Q
what determines the CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of an element?
A
of ELECTRONS orbiting nucleus
9
Q
what is VALENCE?
A
- the characteristic # of electrons lost or gained from the electron cloud of atom- valence # determines element’s chemical conduct with other elements- POS VAL: less electrons than protons- NEG VAL: more electrons than protons
10
Q
how is a molecule formed?
A
when 2 or more atoms interact and bind together by electron behaviors
11
Q
what gives each element’s its CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS?
A
the VARIABILITY of electron count (which is the valence)
12
Q
periodicity
A
valence state of each element
13
Q
valence state
A
charge state(most common loss or gain of electrons from the electron cloud by a particular element)ex: NA +1 (it easily looses 1 electron, leaving +1 of atom)
14
Q
ELECTRONEUTRALITY
A
most important concepts in chemistry- atoms and molecules are powered by thermodynamic laws of physics and are driven to attain electrically neutral state- create cellular energy
15
Q
covalent bond
A
- freely share electrons- most common bonds in biochemistry –> almost all CARBON compounds are covalently bonded
16
Q
ionic bonds
A
bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.
17
Q
hydrogen bonds
A
weak bonds- weak attraction of a covalently bonded hydrogen to any adjacent neg charged atom like oxygen- sub-par electrochemcial bond- ex: cellulouse (paper, wood), DNA, RNA
18
Q
what are the 2 weak bonds
A
- hydrogen bonds2. Van der Waals forces
19
Q
polarity
A
- having a pos and neg-charged side - asymmetric imbalance of electronic charge[ex: H2O is stable, but has a net off-balanced charge –> H +1, H+1, O-2]
20
Q
non-polarity
A
symmetrical distribution of its atoms (neutral balanced charge due to the balance of its structure)
21
Q
ion
A
an atom that is dissolved in water and has either a pos or neg charge
22
Q
molecule
A
2 or more atoms that are bounded together creating complexity
23
Q
macromolecule
A
huge # of molecules bonded together to form giant molecules
24
Q
characteristics of WATER
A
- polarized molecule (has pos & neg region), which make it a powerful dissolving agent
25
dissolution
when ionic compound, like NaCl dissolves in water, the sodium (+1) and chlorine (-1) go into solution, and salt crystals is broken up, the atoms distributed throughout the water, but still electrically neutral
26
dissolution potential
determines how easily or how much of compound will dissolve in water
27
Do covalent molecules dissolve in water?
yes, but they do not dissociate
28
solubility
polar substance dissolve in polar fluids like water- non-polar substances will dissolve in non-polar fluids like carbon tetrachloride or oils
29
cations vs anions
pos cations are positively charged, anions are negatively charged
30
salt
- ionic compounds, when anions and cations crystalize together- water-based environment of body fluids are salty due to ionizing nature of water creating cations and anions (body needs 2g of sodium per day)
31
pH
pH 7
percent hydrogen (ion)
the percent of hydrogen where acid and base (alkaline) properties are equal on a scale of 1-14 (pure water = 7)
32
what happens when an acid dissociates
the hydrogen ions (H+) increase in number in the solution, which creates a acid pH 1-7
33
what is the most common anion that produces BASIC solution?
hydroxide ion OH-
the more OH- dissociates into water, the more powerful the base
34
H+ is a shorthand word for:
hydronium
35
2nd law of thermodynamics explains...? which means...?
ENTROPY: the desire of matter and energy to EQUILIBERATE if not constrained
36
when can you see entropy?
in diffusion of heat from a hotter area to colder area
37
what type of process is diffusion?
a spontaneous and irreversible process
38
can particles that have been spread out by diffusion spontaneously re-order themselves?
NO
39
what is Brownian Motion?
random motion
40
what is concentration gradient?
tendency of substance x to diffuse toward area of cell where it is less concentrated (2nd law of thermodynamics)
41
what is hydraulics?
study & application of using pressures of liquids to do workliquids & solids do not compress, so it creates hydraulic pressure
42
gases create a pressure in direct ratio to...
the amount of pressure they are exerting, or being exerted upon
43
what is partial pressure?
when gases dissolve in liquids, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide does in blood
44
when does a chemical reaction takes place?
when molecules and/or atoms interact and a CHANGE (delta) in one or more molecules or atoms occurs
45
what is a catalyst?
(without the use of energy) causes a reaction to occur almost spontaneously
46
the amount of energy needed to start a reaction is called?
activation energy
47
what is the rate of reaction?
the speed of a reaction to completion (catalysts usually speed up the reaction rate)
48
the sign "+" is...
where the activation energy and catalysts act to create an interaction bt 2 atoms or molecules
49
what are redox reactions?
red-uction and ox-idation
molecules will oxidize, the other will be reduced, thus maintaing balance
50
when does oxidation occur?
when a molecule LOSES electrons or ACCEPTS oxygen
51
when does reduction occur?
when molecule ACCEPTS electrons or hydrogen ions and LOSES oxygen
52
when does oxidative stress occur?
when there is an abundance of oxidized molecules or atoms in the tissue
53
what does antioxidants do?
"mop up" oxidative stress, which damages tissues by restoring electrons to an environment.they are inherently recycled so they can re-donate electrons again and again
54
why are oxidants damaging to tissues?
bc they react with atoms or molecules and change the molecules, which changes the CONFORMATIONAL STRUCTURE and/or the electrochemistry of molecule
55
what is a toxin?
a molecules that strips electrons from biological molecules-toxins keep their electrons, leaving molecules in oxidized state
56
what is chronic inflammation?
an oxidative cellular and tissue state
57
what is nuclear chemistry
chemistry of atom's nucleus
58
what is radioactivity?
result of decay of that nucleus
59
does radioactivity affect electrons?
NO
60
what results in nuclear radiation?
from unstable atomic nuclei releasing particles from unstable nucleus leading to nucleus decay
61
what is an isotope?
different numbers of NEUTRONS in nucleus
62
What are the 4 major types of decay particles from atomic disintegration?
What are they called?
1. beta particles
2. positron emission
3. gamma rays
4. alpha particles
ionizing radiation
63
what are beta particles?
high energy electrons with NEG charge
64
why do beta particles not act like normal electrons?
bc they are ejected from decaying nucleus of a radioactive atom at high speed
65
what are alpha particles?
a helium nucleus that has no electrons-weak radiation, disperse quickly
66
what are positrons emissions?
decay product of a proton with pos charge-high energy particle
67
what are gamma rays?
high energy and dangerously destructive particle emission (form of light energy)
68
what is organic chemistry
chemistry of carbon
69
what are examples of inorganic molecules and why?
cell salts or oxygen, bc they don't contain carbon in their structure
70
what are the most common elements in organic compounds?
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen
71
what elements (2) will [primarily] bond to the 4 basic compounds of carbon?
sulfur & phosphorus
72
soap is an example of what type of infrequent bond of carbon compound?
ionic bond
73
which metal ions (7) will be CHELATED into biological molecules?
iron, magnesium, copper, potassium, sodium, calcium, manganese, etc.
74
what is CHELATED?
not technically bonded, but held in place within an enzyme or PORPHYRIN structure
75
CARBON
# of bond
charge
4 bonds-NEUTRAL charge
76
OXYGEN
# of bonds
charge
2 bonds-NEG charge
77
NITROGEN
# of bonds
charge
3 bonds-NEG charge
78
HYDROGEN
# of bonds
charge
1 bond-POS charge
79
Sulfur and Phosphorus have how many bonds and what charge?
each have 4 bonds and positive charge
80
"meth-"
1
81
"eth-"
2
82
"prop-"
3
83
"but-"
4
84
"pent-"
5
85
"hex-"
6
86
"hept-"
7
87
"oct-"
8
88
"acet-"
2-carbon chain
89
ol
alcohol
90
ase
enzyme
91
ose
sugar
92
amine
amino acid
93
Carbon is element #?
valence?
name 2 other characteristics that it is ALWAYS in
element #6
valence -4
always has its 4 bonds filled & always covalently bonded
94
organic molecules can dissolve in water or not, the degree of dissolution in water or solubility are defined as...?
hydrophobicity hydrophilicity
95
what are saturated molecules?
more solid and dense bc they have MORE HYDROGEN atoms bonded to the molecule per carbon.
96
what are unsaturated molecules?
more liquid and light bc they have LESS HYDROGEN per carbon.
97
what are ENANTIOMERS?
organic molecules that have mirror image constructions (both right- and left-handed mirror)
98
the right configuration of ENANTIOMERS are signified as? the left?
RT: "D-form" (dextrorotatory)LEFT: "L-form" (levorotatory)
99
most amino acids (building block of protein) in biological systems are which form?
L- form
100
sugar molecules that are of use in biological systems are which form?
D- form
101
what are aliphatic molecules?
based on c-c-c linear backbone
102
what are the subdivisions of aliphatic molecules (3)?
1. alkAne (single-bond)
2. alkEne (double-bond)
3. alkYne (triple-bond)
103
what are some examples of aliphatic compounds?
fats, sterols, waxes, fules like gasoline or butane
104
alkAnes are...
saturated
105
alkEnes and alkYnes
unsaturated or polyunsaturated
106
what is an alkyle group?
alkAne or alkEne attached to a primary molecular structure
107
aromatic compounds are based on what type of structure
a benzene ring and are known for their ability to create aromas
108
in a skeleton diagram, a line is a ___?
bond
109
in a skeleton diagram, two lines that converge at an angle form an ___?
elbow
110
in a skeleton diagram, the crux of an elbow with no element indicated is always a ___ ___?
carbon atom
111
carbon always has ___ bonds
4 bonds
112
if the carbon (at the elbow) is bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen, or other elements BESIDES ___ or ___, the element will be indicated by a letter (eg. O, N, P, Na, K)
hydrogen or carbon
113
if the carbon (at the crux of an elbow) is bonded to another elbow, that is a ________ bond.
carbon-to-carbon bond
114
if the number of bonds at the elbow of a carbon does NOT add up to 4, then the missing bonds are bonds to ____?
hydrogen (hydrogen and its bonds are left out)
115
what is an R-group?
an indication that some chemical group is attached to the atoms in question (but it's not important to know exact group)
116
what is alcohol in chemistry?
any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (OH-) is bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl group
117
other classes of molecules related to alcohols are (3)
thiols (sulfide group)
ethers (anesthetics)
phenols (antiseptics)
118
sulfide groups are extremely important in what 2 activities?
protein structure & cellular energy production
119
what is a carbonyl group?
a carbon double bonded to an oxygen O=C
120
carbonyl groups are ____ in nature, why?
polar, bc oxygen likes to be NEG
121
COH is the group indicating an ___
aldehyde
122
aldehydes and ketones are ___ group
carbonyl
123
what is a liver metabolite of ethyl alcohol, which is responsible for alcohol hangovers?
acetaldehyde
124
the essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 90% ___?
cinnamaldehyde
125
what is derived from aldehydes by substituting a 2nd R-group for the hydrogen?
ketones
126
ketone groups are the chemical cause of toxicity in the genetic disease ___
phenlyketonuria (PKU)
127
what is a very common organic acid group, with the R- being any kind of aliphatic or aromatic compound?
carboxylic acid
R-COOH
128
which group is found throughout the biological world, creating WEAK ACIDS?
how does it create a weak acid?
-COOH group(carboxylic acid group)as the H+ dissociates for only short periods of time from the COOH group, creating a mild acid reaction - less time H+ is in solution, less acid is the fluid
129
common carboxylic acids are ___ acids
fatty acids
130
fatty acids are classified by their ____?
saturation
131
what is an unsaturated fatty acid messenger molecule? (pain messengers)
prostaglandin E1
132
how are esters created?
from COOH group by replacing H with R-
133
AMINES are based on ___?
ammonia - NH3
134
what are the 3 types of amines?
1. primary (ONE R- group)
2. secondary (TWO R- group)
3. tertiary (THREE R- group)
135
what is the building blocks of proteins and are all amines, with differing R- groups?
amino acids
136
which class of amines are based upon ring structures that include 1 or more nitrogen atoms in the carbon ring, and can be joined by 2 rings?
heterocyclic amines
137
which class of amines forms many well known and useful organic molecules which are basic blocks in DNA, RNA, porphyrin rings, vitamin B6, nicotine, narcotics, alkloids, etc.?
heterocyclic amines
138
what are a class of heterocyclic amines that CHELATE a metal ion in the molecule's center and are extremely important in the function of many enzymes?
porphyrins*chelate (describes a particular way that ions and molecules bind metal ions, ex. chelation therapy to draw out heavy metal such as lead, mercury, etc.)j
139
what combines an amine group with carbonyl group?
amides
140
____ are building blocks of proteins, and all proteins are ___.
amines; amides
141
when amino acids are joined to form amides, this specific reaction is called ____, bc the resultant amides is called ____, which is the simplest form of ___.
peptide bond; peptide; proteins
142
a peptide bond is a chemical bond formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another amino acid, thereby releasing a molecule of water, this is called __?
dehydration synthesis
143
biological systems are structurally composed of what 4 basic types of organic molecules?
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids
144
what is a long LINEAR chain of bonded amino acids?
single amino acids is?
2?
3?
mutilple bonded aminos (4+) are?
protein
monopeptide
dipeptide
tripeptide
polypeptide or protein
145
proteins are a linear chain of bonded amino acids that ___ into a unique conformation depending on the ___ ___ ___.
FOLD; amino acid sequence
146
what are simple sugars, complex sugars, and starches.
carbohydrates
147
what are starches created from and how?
from simple sugars, by linking multiple simple sugars in long chains, similar to protein creation
148
what are the 3 types of lipids
fatty acids, glycerols, sterols, lipids
149
what is the most common role of lipids in cells and tissues?
it coalesce to form a ___?
cell membranes
bilayer, which makes the membrane
150
what is also a common component of membranes ( besides lipids), and is the basic molecule used to make sterol hormones like corticosteriods (which are molecules made in the adrenal glands)?
cholesterol
151
what are the cell's genetic material
nucleic acids
152
what are long chains of nucleotide subunits, and have both strorge (DNA) and functional (RNA) roles in the cell?
nucleic acids
153
what are nucleotides? and what is it composed of?
building blocks of nucleic acids
composed of a 5-cabon sugar + nitrogenous base + phosphate group
154
nucleic acid is a chain of ___ ___
bonded nucleotides
155
nucleotides are bonded together in long chains, making DNA and RNA where the sugar and phosphate groups form the chain. This is called the ___
phosophate-sugar backbone of the nucleic acid
156
what are the 2 types of nitrogenous bases in nucleotides?
pyrimidines and purines (heterocyclic amines)
157
what is RNA (ribonucleic acid)?
single-strand nucleic acid, made of ribonucleotides
158
what is DNA?
a double-stranded nucleic acid, held together by weak hydrogen bonding
159
what are the "must haves" for amino acids
carboxyl group, amine group, carbon-R group
160
Uninucleate
A cell with only one nucleus. This is most common.
161
Anucleated
Cells that have their nucleus removed.Red blood cells are anucleated, they have their nucleus removed while maturing in the marrow. This causes them to only live for 3-4 months
162
Multinucleated
Cells with more than one nucleus. Most common in nerve and muscle cells for increased efficiency.
163
What is the function of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell?
It stores the genetic material (DNA) and the structures used for cell division and protein synthesis.
164
Chromatin - what is it?
giant particles of tightly wound spools of DNA.
Euchromatin: less tightly packed and easily available for DNA transcription
Heterochromatin: chromatin not sued by that cell, and packaged to keep the genes conserved
165
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Layers of folded, convoluted lipid bilayer membranes. Almost completely fill the cell. ER gives structure to the cell and is a vast transportation and storage system.ER gives enzymes contained spaces in which to work.
166
Cytoskeleton - what does it do?
Holds the many membranes of the cell in place
167
Nuclear Envelope- What is it?
a double layer membrane that contains pores which allow materials to pass selectively in and out of the nucleus
168
Function of SER & RER
organize the interior of the cell, allow organized transport of molecular products like proteins and lipids, allow space for enzymes to manufacture necessary molecules like lipids, hormones, enzymes and carbohydrates, creates vacuoles for storage and vesicles for transportation
169
Which ER can form itself into Golgi Complex?
Smooth ER
170
What is the Golgi Apparatus?
flattened ER found near the nucleus
171
What are the functions of the Golgi Complex?
Receives proteins, carbohydrates and lipids from ER, enzymes inside modify and concentrate protein & lipids, materials are packaged into secretory vesicles which pinch off and move to needed sites.
172
What is it called when vesicles or vacuoles transport materials out of the cell?
exocytosis
173
There are many membranes in a cell. What is the outer cell membrane called?
plasmalemma, or plasma membrane_all cells are separated from their environment by this
174
why is the cytoplasm of a cell so salty?
because dissolved ions like Ca+2Na+2K+Cl- make it that way
175
What are the two basic classifications of cells?
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
176
What types of life forms contain prokaryotic cells?
Bacteria and viruses
177
What types of life forms contain eukaryotic cells?
fungi, plants, animals (humans), protazoa
178
Ribosome - What happens here and how?
Manufacture of proteins from translated genetic code via messenger RNA and amino acids. Consists of 2 subunits (a 30s and 50s)the 50s subunit has a tunnel like space inside it which allows products to enter and exit.
179
What is the active site of a ribosome?
the location in an enzyme where the enzyme catalyses reactions. located in the tunnel of the 50s subunit of RNA.
180
Why is a ribosome sometimes called a ribozyme?
because of the enzymatic function of the RNA in synthesizing proteins.
181
Mitochondrion - what is it?
a highly specialized organelle with a double membrane.Not found in prokaryotes.
182
What is the function of the Mitochondrion?
it makes ATP via very complex enzymatic cascades.
183
Does mitochondria have its own DNA?
Yes, They can divide by themselves, separately of their host cells via fission. they make all their own enzymes.
184
Vacuoles and vesicles - what are they in general?
pinched off from ER and Golgi bodies and filled with a specific product for transport. eg peroxisomes are hydrogen peroxide filled vacuoles.
185
What is it called when particles or external masses are surrounded by part of the plasmalemma to incorporate or expel it into/out of the cell?
endocytosis or phagocytosis (in)exocytosis (out)
186
What is a lysosome?
common vacuole that digests proteins.Lys - to split or digest
187
What is the act of breaking down complex substances by enzymes into smaller molecules called?
Catabolism
188
What is the building processes of the cell that assembles structures and stores molecules called?
anabolism
189
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
gives a cell volume and structure.
190
What is the cytoskeleton made of?
Microtubules - stiff protein tubes
191
What are the two types of microtubules?
Intermediate filaments& microfilaments
192
What are filaments mostly made of?
actin - a protein which can stretch and contract within the cell
193
cells adhere to each other to form what?
Tissues
194
how do the cells stick to each other to form tissues?
Cells adhere by tight junctions and communicate via desmosomes. This provides structure and function.
195
What is a cell primarily structured by?
lipid bilayer membranes of phospholipids, cholesterol and embedded proteins.
196
What is the most abundant molecule of membranes?
Phospholipids. They give the membrane its primary properties.
197
What are the functions of a membrane?
Give separation, give efficiency and organization to cell, protect from external imbalance, allows selective transport of almost any material in or out of cell (including H2O), & creates ground for manufacturing, storage & space for cell products
198
Are phospholipids polar or non-polar?
Both. The phospho is polar and the lipid is non-polar.
199
Many proteins and carbohydrates are embedded in the plasmalemma, ER, and RER. What are some examples of these proteins and carbohydrates?
Proteins:
enzymes, receptor proteins (bind hormones and transmitters), channel proteins (selectively allow ions and molecules through the membrane), carrier proteins (carry hormones or other molecules through the membrane.
Carbohydrates:
glycolipids (lipid-glycogen molecules), glycoproteins (protein-glycogen molecules)
200
What do carbohydrates imbedded in plasmalemma, ER and RER do?
They operate as cell lubricants, adhesives, identifying markers and receptors.
201
What is active transport?
proteins on the plasmalemma use ATP to move molecules in and out of the cell. Usually occurs against the concentration gradient.
202
What is Passive Transport?
proteins utilize natural chemical gradients of concentration or other properties to move molecules in and out of the cell without expending any energy.
203
Do Channel Proteins use active or passive transport?
Active
204
Do Carrier Proteins use active or passive transport?
passive
205
What are Receptors?
proteins which are the communication devices of the cell and its nearby bloodstream and tissues. They receive molecular signals from the exterior and communicate a message to the interior of the cell.
206
What is a ligand?
The name for the messenger molecule (be it hormone, ion, neurotransmitter, protein) that binds to the receptor protein to communicate with the cell. It will start a cascade of activities signaling the cell of changed conditions without it.
207
What is a G -protein Receptor?
A common receptor type with complex activity. It is the receptor protein that 50% of pharmaceutical drugs are designed to affect. The G-protein receptor is activated and then in a complex signaling process it turns on or off/opens or closes an ion channel allowing an ion flux into or out of a cell.
208
what are Carbohydrates?
simple and complex sugars (starch)
209
What are lipids made from?
aliphatic chains and sterol
210
What are nucleic acids made from?
nucleotides
211
what does suffix -ose designate?
Carbohydrate - whether starch or sugar
212
What does "saccharide" designate?
another term that will indicate sugar or carbohydrate.
213
What is a starch?
macromolecular sized carbohydrates made of repeating subunits of sugars. (complex sugars)
214
simple sugars are...?
mono or disaccharidesmonosaccharides are the basic building block of all starches and sugars
215
What are complex sugars?
polysaccharides
216
What do digestion processes convert starches and sugars to?
glucose - a biological sugar that cells utilize in energy production.
217
What is the characteristic structure of a monosaccharide sugar?
a ring of 4 or 5 carbohydrate atoms with 1 oxygen atom included in the ring with numerous OH- (hydroxyl) groups attached to the ring.
218
Monosaccharides are single sugar moieties or subunits or building blocks. These single subunits can also be called...?
Monomers
219
What is a disaccharides?
two monosaccharides bonded by and oxygen bridge using dehydration synthesis reaction. Now called a dimer.
220
What is an oligosaccharide?
a small length polysaccharide with 3 to 10 sugar subunits.
221
Plants create three major starch types synthesized from glucose. What are they?
Amylose, Amylopectin, Cellulose
222
What is cellulose used for in a plant?
structure
223
What is amylose and amylopectin used for in a plant?
energy storage molecules, easily broken down to glucose
224
What is glycogen?
an important starch created by animals and stored in the liver and skeletal muscles.Primary source of carbohydrate storage in animals. created from glucose subunits.
225
What is the most important monosaccharide in biological systems?
Glucose; it is the fuel for mitochondrion to make ATP
226
What are the two forms of enantiomers (mirror image molecules) glucose exists as?
L-glucoseD-glucose
227
Which enantiomer of glucose is used for energy generation?
d-glucose
228
Is glucose a ring or a chain?
it moves back and forth between ring and chain structure when dissolved. The rate is determined by the pH of the solution (cytoplasm)
229
what is a Chiral Conformation?
simple position change of certain groups or elements of a molecule (not an enantiomer, which all parts flip)
230
what are the two distinct chiral conformations of glucose?
alpha and beta only b-D-glucose is utilized in glycolysis; a-D-glucose is rapidly converted to beta by an enzyme so we can use it
231
What is a ketose sugar?
a 6-carbon simple sugar with a ketone group.
232
What kind of sugar is Fructose?
a ketose sugar
233
Is fructose a ring or a chain?
it flips back and forth in solution and has a and b_ chiral forms
234
What is dehydration synthesis?
when 2 monosaccharides are bonded by an enzyme molecule, H2O is released, as if the new molecule has dried out a bit. Thus, the bonding dehydrates. In sugars it is called a glycosidic bond.
235
What is a glycosidic bond?
a bond formed by dehydration synthesis linking sugar monomers.
236
What is hydrolysis?
a catabolic process where macromolecules like proteins and carbohydrates are broken down into their individual subunits. It uses water and is the opposite of dehydration synthesis.
237
What is amylose?
a long chain plant starch of glucose monomers.
238
the generation of glycogen from monomers is called_
glycogenesis
239
hydrogen bonding
weak bonds that give cellulose its strength and flexibility
240
what is a chitin?
A structural and protective animal starch which makes the protective exoskeletons of insects.
241
What is Chitin made from?
a polysaccharide of repeating monomers of N-acetyl glucosamine (a sugar-amino monomer)
242
What is metabolism?
the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life.
243
What is the most commonly used molecule to generate cellular energy?
charbohydrates
244
What creates ATP?
carbohydrates in the form of glucose fuel the systems that create ATP.
245
What are teh 2 methods to generate ATP?
glycolysis creates substrates that feed the kreb's Cycle followed by Oxidation Phosphorylation to create ATP.Prokaryotes use only glycolisis.
246
What is the utilization of glucose and other small molecules to create ATP called?
cellular respiration
247
What is Anaerobic respiration?
respiration taking place without oxygen.
248
aerobic respiration
requires O2, but produces an abundance of ATP and CO2
249
Is glycolysis anaerobic or aerobic respiration?
anaerobic
250
Is the Kreb's cycle anaerobic or aerobic?
aerobic
251
What are the 5 points on the general metabolism chart of carbohydrates?
1- large carbohydrates degraded to simple sugars
2- sugars enter glycolysis and form pyruvate + 2 ATP = NADH
3- pyruvate converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A
4- acetyl CoA enters Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
5- ATP produced from oxidative phosphorylation of Krebs products plus CO2
252
What does glycolysis metabolize simple sugars to create?
pyruvic acid (2 pyruvic, 2 NADH and 4 ATP) [net gain of 2 ATP]
b-D-glucose is the only simple sugar that enters the glycolitic cycle. This process uses 2 ATP.
253
Where does Glycolysis take place?
In the cytoplasm of cells. Can also take place in the mitochondrion
254
What is gluconeogenesis?
the process of creating glucose from molecules like lactate or amino acids to make ATP.
255
Do we want gluconeiogenesis?
no. only occurs when blood sugar is too low.
256
What is ATP?
Adenosine Triphosphate. The usable form of energy in the body. The result of Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain.
257
What are the primary structural component of membranes?
phospholipid fatty acids
258
What stores energy for making ATP?
lipids
259
Lipids store energy in the form of what for use in the making of ATP?
Lipds store energy in the form of hydrocarbons to provide energy for the making of ATP.
260
What macromolecules are messengers in the bloodstream as hormones and prostaglandins?
lipids
261
What are fat soluble vitamins?
A,D,E,K
262
Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophobic
263
What are the three structural types of Lipids?
Fatty Acids, Glycerols, Sterols
264
What are the four types of lipids found in biological systems?
fatty acids, non-glyceride lipids, glyceride lipids, complex lipids
265
What is the most crucial role of a fatty acid?
acting as an aliphatic chain in the structuring of cell bilayer membranes, mostly as phospholipids
266
Are fatty acids mostly non-polar or polar?
Most are non-polar, but their acid heads lend some solubility in water and hence can be used to emulsify non-polar and polar substances. Soaps are salts of fatty acids.
267
What is emulsification?
the dissolving of non-polar and polar molecules. Soaps are fatty acids with a K+ (potassium) end ionically bonded to it. The fatty acid end attracts the lipid and the salt end allows the molecule to be dissolved in water and washed away.
268
What is a fatty acid?
a hydrocarbon chain (with either single or double bonds) capped with a Methyl Group (CH3) on one end and a Carboxyl Group on the other.
269
How does the fatty acid molecule differentiate?
The Carboxyl Group is easily replaced or added, to form various kinds of fatty acids.
270
What is the structure of a phospholipid?
the bonding of a phosphate group to a fatty acid creates a phospholipid.
271
What is sterol?
A basic molecular backbone used to make cholesterols and sterol hormones like corticosteroids and gonadal hormones.
6 carbon rings with one 5 carbon ring
272
What is the precursor molecule for sterol-based compbounds and why?
Cholesterol; it is needed to manufacture hormones like estrogen, etc.
273
What are sphingolipids?
a non-glyceride lipid constructed from a fatty acid called Sphingosine with an amino (nitrogen containing) alcohol plus a long chain fatty acid.
274
What are the three types of glyceride molecule?
mono- di and tri- glycerol named for the number of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone.
275
What are the two important & most common diglycerides used in the lipid bilayer?
Phosphatidylcholine, Phosphatidylethanolamine
276
What is a liposome?
A complex lipid that is a small sphere of bilayer and stores or transports polar, water soluble molecules.
277
What is a Micelle?
a single layer of phospholipid that stores or transports non-polar, fat soluble molecules.
278
How does a liposome and a micelle differ?
liposomes are bilayer, micelles are single layer.Liposomes transport or store polar molecules, Micelles transport or store non-polar molecules.
279
What is a Lipoprotein?
A complex lipid. A liposome that has proteins embedded in it.
280
What is a chylomicron?
a lipoprotein micelle that transports triglycerides and cholesterol throughout the body in the bloodstream.
281
What is prostaglandin?
A lipid (fatty acid) that serves as a pain messenger.
282
What are prostaglandins made from?
arachidonic acid synthesized from linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that humans do not synthesize but must get from food.
283
What is arachiodonic acid?
It is an fatty acid with four double carbon bonds that can be very inflammatory in the body causing oxidative stress but also easily combines to form important molecules like prostaglandins.
284
Why are Arachiodonic acid and prostaglandins important in our body?
they play important messengering roles in: blood clotting, creating an inflammatory response, menstrual cramping, protecting the stomach lining, bronchorestriction and bronchodialation in the lungs.
285
How are sterol backbone molecules utilized?
to produce hormones, digestive bile acids and cholesterol, important gonadal hormones: testosterone, estriol, estradiol, progesterone. Adrenal hormones: glucocorticoids and corticosteroids.
286
What happens to the production of adrenal hormones when the body is under stress?
less of the anti inflammatory hormones, glucocorticoids and corticosteroids are produced
287
How do lipid messenger molecules enter a cell?
In the standard way as other molecules (e.g. neurotransmitters and peptides): by entering a cell receptor site and beginning a chain of events signaling the cell of changed conditions. This triggers a cascade of actions within the cell.
288
How are lipids metabolized?
lipids pass through the stomach into the duodenum and jejunum where bile salts delivered from the liver break up lipid globules into small micelles. Lipase enzymes from the pancreas are incorporated into the micelle with the fat or oil. The micelles are small enough to fuse with small intestine epithelial cells by endocytosis and begin their digestive journey.
289
What is Bile?
water soluble sterols
290
How do bile and lipase function together to help digestion?
The emulsification of fat by bile (with lecithins - phosholipid emulsifiers) in the duodenum, lipase enters to break down the triglycerides and joins the emulsified fat in micelles and are carried into the rest of the intestine as Micelle Droplets. The micelle then fuses via endocytosis with the cell wall of the villus and the emulsified fat is absorbed.
291
What is the small intestine lined with?
villi - three layers of villusvilli are made of columnar epithelium cellsvilli maximize absorption
292
How is bile excreted?
Sensory nerves tell the liver to excrete bile. The gall bladder is only activated when large quantities of fat are sensed.
293
When the micelles are joined with the lining of the intestine, what happens?
the micelles are protienated, special proteins are embedded in the droplet bilayer and become chylomicrons (via the golgi complex inside the parenchyma cell on the villi) and release to the lacteals of the lymph systems.
294
Are lipids digested and released into the blood stream?
No, lipids are emulsified and enter the lymph system.
295
What is a lymph lacteal?
a tube of cells, lika a capillary of the lymph system.
296
Where do chylomicrons travel?
They are formed in the golgi complex (with lipid and lipase) and are released into the lymph. The chylomicrons catalysis the fats into glycerol and fatty acids. The lypmh system delivers these to the blood stream via the superior vena cava. This is how we get our fat soluble vitamins into our blood stream.
297
b-oxidation is used to generate what?
ATP. b-oxidation is a very efficient way to burn calories, it is a lipid energy generation pathway which provides metabolites for the Krebs Cycle using lipids for fuel.
298
What is the end product of b-oxidation?
Acetyl Coenxyme A (ACA) form acetyl units cleaved from lipid fatty acid chains. Also produces NADH and FADH2 which are important energy carrier molecules.
299
What kind of process is b-oxidation?
a degradation process; a classic catabolic process
300
Where does b-oxidation take place?
in the matrix of the mitochondrion
301
What is a degradation process?
a process in which something is degraded into component parts in measured steps. a classic catabolic process.
302
For each acetyl group that enters the b-oxidation cascade, what is produced?
Acetyl Coenxyme A is abundantly made which directly feeds the Krebs CycleFor every 2-carbon acetyl group oxidized away from the fatty acid. 2 coenzyme A are used and 1 ATP is used and 1 FADH2 and 1 NADH are produced.
303
What is the most common way to metabolize lipids for energy generation?
b-oxidation
