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Bio Chem > BIOCHEM Midterm Study Cards > Flashcards

BIOCHEM Midterm Study Cards Flashcards

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1
Q

what is INORGANIC CHEMISTRY?

A

chemistry of elements, reactivity, and atomic relationships that are based on elements and their properties

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2
Q

what is ORGANIC CHEMISTRY?

A

chemistry of CARBON, it’s reactivity and relationships with other elements and the compounds of carbon makes

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3
Q

what is an ATOM?

A

single nucleus made of protons and neutrons, with a cloud of orbiting electrons

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4
Q

what determines the ELEMENT of the atom?

A

count of protons in a nucleus

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5
Q

what is SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES?

A

means atomic particles are divisible

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6
Q

what is the structure of an atomic particle

A

a nucleus with an orbital cloud of electrons. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons

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7
Q

name the smallest unit –> largest unit

A

particle –> atom –> element –> molecule –> macromolecule

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8
Q

what determines the CHEMICAL PROPERTIES of an element?

A

of ELECTRONS orbiting nucleus

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9
Q

what is VALENCE?

A
  • the characteristic # of electrons lost or gained from the electron cloud of atom- valence # determines element’s chemical conduct with other elements- POS VAL: less electrons than protons- NEG VAL: more electrons than protons
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10
Q

how is a molecule formed?

A

when 2 or more atoms interact and bind together by electron behaviors

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11
Q

what gives each element’s its CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS?

A

the VARIABILITY of electron count (which is the valence)

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12
Q

periodicity

A

valence state of each element

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13
Q

valence state

A

charge state(most common loss or gain of electrons from the electron cloud by a particular element)ex: NA +1 (it easily looses 1 electron, leaving +1 of atom)

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14
Q

ELECTRONEUTRALITY

A

most important concepts in chemistry- atoms and molecules are powered by thermodynamic laws of physics and are driven to attain electrically neutral state- create cellular energy

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15
Q

covalent bond

A
  • freely share electrons- most common bonds in biochemistry –> almost all CARBON compounds are covalently bonded
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16
Q

ionic bonds

A

bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.

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17
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

weak bonds- weak attraction of a covalently bonded hydrogen to any adjacent neg charged atom like oxygen- sub-par electrochemcial bond- ex: cellulouse (paper, wood), DNA, RNA

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18
Q

what are the 2 weak bonds

A
  1. hydrogen bonds2. Van der Waals forces
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19
Q

polarity

A
  • having a pos and neg-charged side - asymmetric imbalance of electronic charge[ex: H2O is stable, but has a net off-balanced charge –> H +1, H+1, O-2]
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20
Q

non-polarity

A

symmetrical distribution of its atoms (neutral balanced charge due to the balance of its structure)

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21
Q

ion

A

an atom that is dissolved in water and has either a pos or neg charge

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22
Q

molecule

A

2 or more atoms that are bounded together creating complexity

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23
Q

macromolecule

A

huge # of molecules bonded together to form giant molecules

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24
Q

characteristics of WATER

A
  • polarized molecule (has pos & neg region), which make it a powerful dissolving agent
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25
Q

dissolution

A

when ionic compound, like NaCl dissolves in water, the sodium (+1) and chlorine (-1) go into solution, and salt crystals is broken up, the atoms distributed throughout the water, but still electrically neutral

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26
Q

dissolution potential

A

determines how easily or how much of compound will dissolve in water

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27
Q

Do covalent molecules dissolve in water?

A

yes, but they do not dissociate

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28
Q

solubility

A

polar substance dissolve in polar fluids like water- non-polar substances will dissolve in non-polar fluids like carbon tetrachloride or oils

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29
Q

cations vs anions

A

pos cations are positively charged, anions are negatively charged

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30
Q

salt

A
  • ionic compounds, when anions and cations crystalize together- water-based environment of body fluids are salty due to ionizing nature of water creating cations and anions (body needs 2g of sodium per day)
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31
Q

pH
pH 7

A

percent hydrogen (ion)
the percent of hydrogen where acid and base (alkaline) properties are equal on a scale of 1-14 (pure water = 7)

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32
Q

what happens when an acid dissociates

A

the hydrogen ions (H+) increase in number in the solution, which creates a acid pH 1-7

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33
Q

what is the most common anion that produces BASIC solution?

A

hydroxide ion OH-
the more OH- dissociates into water, the more powerful the base

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34
Q

H+ is a shorthand word for:

A

hydronium

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35
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics explains…? which means…?

A

ENTROPY: the desire of matter and energy to EQUILIBERATE if not constrained

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36
Q

when can you see entropy?

A

in diffusion of heat from a hotter area to colder area

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37
Q

what type of process is diffusion?

A

a spontaneous and irreversible process

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38
Q

can particles that have been spread out by diffusion spontaneously re-order themselves?

A

NO

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39
Q

what is Brownian Motion?

A

random motion

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40
Q

what is concentration gradient?

A

tendency of substance x to diffuse toward area of cell where it is less concentrated (2nd law of thermodynamics)

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41
Q

what is hydraulics?

A

study & application of using pressures of liquids to do workliquids & solids do not compress, so it creates hydraulic pressure

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42
Q

gases create a pressure in direct ratio to…

A

the amount of pressure they are exerting, or being exerted upon

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43
Q

what is partial pressure?

A

when gases dissolve in liquids, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide does in blood

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44
Q

when does a chemical reaction takes place?

A

when molecules and/or atoms interact and a CHANGE (delta) in one or more molecules or atoms occurs

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45
Q

what is a catalyst?

A

(without the use of energy) causes a reaction to occur almost spontaneously

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46
Q

the amount of energy needed to start a reaction is called?

A

activation energy

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47
Q

what is the rate of reaction?

A

the speed of a reaction to completion (catalysts usually speed up the reaction rate)

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48
Q

the sign “+” is…

A

where the activation energy and catalysts act to create an interaction bt 2 atoms or molecules

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49
Q

what are redox reactions?

A

red-uction and ox-idation
molecules will oxidize, the other will be reduced, thus maintaing balance

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50
Q

when does oxidation occur?

A

when a molecule LOSES electrons or ACCEPTS oxygen

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51
Q

when does reduction occur?

A

when molecule ACCEPTS electrons or hydrogen ions and LOSES oxygen

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52
Q

when does oxidative stress occur?

A

when there is an abundance of oxidized molecules or atoms in the tissue

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53
Q

what does antioxidants do?

A

“mop up” oxidative stress, which damages tissues by restoring electrons to an environment.they are inherently recycled so they can re-donate electrons again and again

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54
Q

why are oxidants damaging to tissues?

A

bc they react with atoms or molecules and change the molecules, which changes the CONFORMATIONAL STRUCTURE and/or the electrochemistry of molecule

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55
Q

what is a toxin?

A

a molecules that strips electrons from biological molecules-toxins keep their electrons, leaving molecules in oxidized state

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56
Q

what is chronic inflammation?

A

an oxidative cellular and tissue state

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57
Q

what is nuclear chemistry

A

chemistry of atom’s nucleus

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58
Q

what is radioactivity?

A

result of decay of that nucleus

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59
Q

does radioactivity affect electrons?

A

NO

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60
Q

what results in nuclear radiation?

A

from unstable atomic nuclei releasing particles from unstable nucleus leading to nucleus decay

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61
Q

what is an isotope?

A

different numbers of NEUTRONS in nucleus

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62
Q

What are the 4 major types of decay particles from atomic disintegration?

What are they called?

A
  1. beta particles
  2. positron emission
  3. gamma rays
  4. alpha particles
    ionizing radiation
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63
Q

what are beta particles?

A

high energy electrons with NEG charge

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64
Q

why do beta particles not act like normal electrons?

A

bc they are ejected from decaying nucleus of a radioactive atom at high speed

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65
Q

what are alpha particles?

A

a helium nucleus that has no electrons-weak radiation, disperse quickly

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66
Q

what are positrons emissions?

A

decay product of a proton with pos charge-high energy particle

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67
Q

what are gamma rays?

A

high energy and dangerously destructive particle emission (form of light energy)

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68
Q

what is organic chemistry

A

chemistry of carbon

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69
Q

what are examples of inorganic molecules and why?

A

cell salts or oxygen, bc they don’t contain carbon in their structure

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70
Q

what are the most common elements in organic compounds?

A

hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen

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71
Q

what elements (2) will [primarily] bond to the 4 basic compounds of carbon?

A

sulfur & phosphorus

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72
Q

soap is an example of what type of infrequent bond of carbon compound?

A

ionic bond

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73
Q

which metal ions (7) will be CHELATED into biological molecules?

A

iron, magnesium, copper, potassium, sodium, calcium, manganese, etc.

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74
Q

what is CHELATED?

A

not technically bonded, but held in place within an enzyme or PORPHYRIN structure

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75
Q

CARBON
# of bond
charge

A

4 bonds-NEUTRAL charge

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76
Q

OXYGEN
# of bonds
charge

A

2 bonds-NEG charge

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77
Q

NITROGEN
# of bonds
charge

A

3 bonds-NEG charge

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78
Q

HYDROGEN
# of bonds
charge

A

1 bond-POS charge

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79
Q

Sulfur and Phosphorus have how many bonds and what charge?

A

each have 4 bonds and positive charge

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80
Q

“meth-“

A

1

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81
Q

“eth-“

A

2

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82
Q

“prop-“

A

3

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83
Q

“but-“

A

4

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84
Q

“pent-“

A

5

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85
Q

“hex-“

A

6

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86
Q

“hept-“

A

7

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87
Q

“oct-“

A

8

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88
Q

“acet-“

A

2-carbon chain

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89
Q

ol

A

alcohol

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90
Q

ase

A

enzyme

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91
Q

ose

A

sugar

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92
Q

amine

A

amino acid

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93
Q

Carbon is element #?
valence?
name 2 other characteristics that it is ALWAYS in

A

element #6
valence -4
always has its 4 bonds filled & always covalently bonded

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94
Q

organic molecules can dissolve in water or not, the degree of dissolution in water or solubility are defined as…?

A

hydrophobicity hydrophilicity

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95
Q

what are saturated molecules?

A

more solid and dense bc they have MORE HYDROGEN atoms bonded to the molecule per carbon.

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96
Q

what are unsaturated molecules?

A

more liquid and light bc they have LESS HYDROGEN per carbon.

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97
Q

what are ENANTIOMERS?

A

organic molecules that have mirror image constructions (both right- and left-handed mirror)

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98
Q

the right configuration of ENANTIOMERS are signified as? the left?

A

RT: “D-form” (dextrorotatory)LEFT: “L-form” (levorotatory)

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99
Q

most amino acids (building block of protein) in biological systems are which form?

A

L- form

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100
Q

sugar molecules that are of use in biological systems are which form?

A

D- form

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101
Q

what are aliphatic molecules?

A

based on c-c-c linear backbone

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102
Q

what are the subdivisions of aliphatic molecules (3)?

A
  1. alkAne (single-bond)
  2. alkEne (double-bond)
  3. alkYne (triple-bond)
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103
Q

what are some examples of aliphatic compounds?

A

fats, sterols, waxes, fules like gasoline or butane

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104
Q

alkAnes are…

A

saturated

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105
Q

alkEnes and alkYnes

A

unsaturated or polyunsaturated

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106
Q

what is an alkyle group?

A

alkAne or alkEne attached to a primary molecular structure

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107
Q

aromatic compounds are based on what type of structure

A

a benzene ring and are known for their ability to create aromas

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108
Q

in a skeleton diagram, a line is a ___?

A

bond

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109
Q

in a skeleton diagram, two lines that converge at an angle form an ___?

A

elbow

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110
Q

in a skeleton diagram, the crux of an elbow with no element indicated is always a ___ ___?

A

carbon atom

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111
Q

carbon always has ___ bonds

A

4 bonds

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112
Q

if the carbon (at the elbow) is bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen, or other elements BESIDES ___ or ___, the element will be indicated by a letter (eg. O, N, P, Na, K)

A

hydrogen or carbon

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113
Q

if the carbon (at the crux of an elbow) is bonded to another elbow, that is a ________ bond.

A

carbon-to-carbon bond

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114
Q

if the number of bonds at the elbow of a carbon does NOT add up to 4, then the missing bonds are bonds to ____?

A

hydrogen (hydrogen and its bonds are left out)

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115
Q

what is an R-group?

A

an indication that some chemical group is attached to the atoms in question (but it’s not important to know exact group)

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116
Q

what is alcohol in chemistry?

A

any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (OH-) is bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl group

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117
Q

other classes of molecules related to alcohols are (3)

A

thiols (sulfide group)
ethers (anesthetics)
phenols (antiseptics)

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118
Q

sulfide groups are extremely important in what 2 activities?

A

protein structure & cellular energy production

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119
Q

what is a carbonyl group?

A

a carbon double bonded to an oxygen O=C

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120
Q

carbonyl groups are ____ in nature, why?

A

polar, bc oxygen likes to be NEG

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121
Q

COH is the group indicating an ___

A

aldehyde

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122
Q

aldehydes and ketones are ___ group

A

carbonyl

123
Q

what is a liver metabolite of ethyl alcohol, which is responsible for alcohol hangovers?

A

acetaldehyde

124
Q

the essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 90% ___?

A

cinnamaldehyde

125
Q

what is derived from aldehydes by substituting a 2nd R-group for the hydrogen?

A

ketones

126
Q

ketone groups are the chemical cause of toxicity in the genetic disease ___

A

phenlyketonuria (PKU)

127
Q

what is a very common organic acid group, with the R- being any kind of aliphatic or aromatic compound?

A

carboxylic acid
R-COOH

128
Q

which group is found throughout the biological world, creating WEAK ACIDS?

how does it create a weak acid?

A

-COOH group(carboxylic acid group)as the H+ dissociates for only short periods of time from the COOH group, creating a mild acid reaction - less time H+ is in solution, less acid is the fluid

129
Q

common carboxylic acids are ___ acids

A

fatty acids

130
Q

fatty acids are classified by their ____?

A

saturation

131
Q

what is an unsaturated fatty acid messenger molecule? (pain messengers)

A

prostaglandin E1

132
Q

how are esters created?

A

from COOH group by replacing H with R-

133
Q

AMINES are based on ___?

A

ammonia - NH3

134
Q

what are the 3 types of amines?

A
  1. primary (ONE R- group)
  2. secondary (TWO R- group)
  3. tertiary (THREE R- group)
135
Q

what is the building blocks of proteins and are all amines, with differing R- groups?

A

amino acids

136
Q

which class of amines are based upon ring structures that include 1 or more nitrogen atoms in the carbon ring, and can be joined by 2 rings?

A

heterocyclic amines

137
Q

which class of amines forms many well known and useful organic molecules which are basic blocks in DNA, RNA, porphyrin rings, vitamin B6, nicotine, narcotics, alkloids, etc.?

A

heterocyclic amines

138
Q

what are a class of heterocyclic amines that CHELATE a metal ion in the molecule’s center and are extremely important in the function of many enzymes?

A

porphyrins*chelate (describes a particular way that ions and molecules bind metal ions, ex. chelation therapy to draw out heavy metal such as lead, mercury, etc.)j

139
Q

what combines an amine group with carbonyl group?

A

amides

140
Q

____ are building blocks of proteins, and all proteins are ___.

A

amines; amides

141
Q

when amino acids are joined to form amides, this specific reaction is called ____, bc the resultant amides is called ____, which is the simplest form of ___.

A

peptide bond; peptide; proteins

142
Q

a peptide bond is a chemical bond formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another amino acid, thereby releasing a molecule of water, this is called __?

A

dehydration synthesis

143
Q

biological systems are structurally composed of what 4 basic types of organic molecules?

A

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids

144
Q

what is a long LINEAR chain of bonded amino acids?
single amino acids is?

2?

3?

mutilple bonded aminos (4+) are?

A

protein
monopeptide
dipeptide
tripeptide
polypeptide or protein

145
Q

proteins are a linear chain of bonded amino acids that ___ into a unique conformation depending on the ___ ___ ___.

A

FOLD; amino acid sequence

146
Q

what are simple sugars, complex sugars, and starches.

A

carbohydrates

147
Q

what are starches created from and how?

A

from simple sugars, by linking multiple simple sugars in long chains, similar to protein creation

148
Q

what are the 3 types of lipids

A

fatty acids, glycerols, sterols, lipids

149
Q

what is the most common role of lipids in cells and tissues?

it coalesce to form a ___?

A

cell membranes
bilayer, which makes the membrane

150
Q

what is also a common component of membranes ( besides lipids), and is the basic molecule used to make sterol hormones like corticosteriods (which are molecules made in the adrenal glands)?

A

cholesterol

151
Q

what are the cell’s genetic material

A

nucleic acids

152
Q

what are long chains of nucleotide subunits, and have both strorge (DNA) and functional (RNA) roles in the cell?

A

nucleic acids

153
Q

what are nucleotides? and what is it composed of?

A

building blocks of nucleic acids
composed of a 5-cabon sugar + nitrogenous base + phosphate group

154
Q

nucleic acid is a chain of ___ ___

A

bonded nucleotides

155
Q

nucleotides are bonded together in long chains, making DNA and RNA where the sugar and phosphate groups form the chain. This is called the ___

A

phosophate-sugar backbone of the nucleic acid

156
Q

what are the 2 types of nitrogenous bases in nucleotides?

A

pyrimidines and purines (heterocyclic amines)

157
Q

what is RNA (ribonucleic acid)?

A

single-strand nucleic acid, made of ribonucleotides

158
Q

what is DNA?

A

a double-stranded nucleic acid, held together by weak hydrogen bonding

159
Q

what are the “must haves” for amino acids

A

carboxyl group, amine group, carbon-R group

160
Q

Uninucleate

A

A cell with only one nucleus. This is most common.

161
Q

Anucleated

A

Cells that have their nucleus removed.Red blood cells are anucleated, they have their nucleus removed while maturing in the marrow. This causes them to only live for 3-4 months

162
Q

Multinucleated

A

Cells with more than one nucleus. Most common in nerve and muscle cells for increased efficiency.

163
Q

What is the function of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell?

A

It stores the genetic material (DNA) and the structures used for cell division and protein synthesis.

164
Q

Chromatin - what is it?

A

giant particles of tightly wound spools of DNA.
Euchromatin: less tightly packed and easily available for DNA transcription
Heterochromatin: chromatin not sued by that cell, and packaged to keep the genes conserved

165
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Layers of folded, convoluted lipid bilayer membranes. Almost completely fill the cell. ER gives structure to the cell and is a vast transportation and storage system.ER gives enzymes contained spaces in which to work.

166
Q

Cytoskeleton - what does it do?

A

Holds the many membranes of the cell in place

167
Q

Nuclear Envelope- What is it?

A

a double layer membrane that contains pores which allow materials to pass selectively in and out of the nucleus

168
Q

Function of SER & RER

A

organize the interior of the cell, allow organized transport of molecular products like proteins and lipids, allow space for enzymes to manufacture necessary molecules like lipids, hormones, enzymes and carbohydrates, creates vacuoles for storage and vesicles for transportation

169
Q

Which ER can form itself into Golgi Complex?

A

Smooth ER

170
Q

What is the Golgi Apparatus?

A

flattened ER found near the nucleus

171
Q

What are the functions of the Golgi Complex?

A

Receives proteins, carbohydrates and lipids from ER, enzymes inside modify and concentrate protein & lipids, materials are packaged into secretory vesicles which pinch off and move to needed sites.

172
Q

What is it called when vesicles or vacuoles transport materials out of the cell?

A

exocytosis

173
Q

There are many membranes in a cell. What is the outer cell membrane called?

A

plasmalemma, or plasma membrane_all cells are separated from their environment by this

174
Q

why is the cytoplasm of a cell so salty?

A

because dissolved ions like Ca+2Na+2K+Cl- make it that way

175
Q

What are the two basic classifications of cells?

A

prokaryotic and eukaryotic

176
Q

What types of life forms contain prokaryotic cells?

A

Bacteria and viruses

177
Q

What types of life forms contain eukaryotic cells?

A

fungi, plants, animals (humans), protazoa

178
Q

Ribosome - What happens here and how?

A

Manufacture of proteins from translated genetic code via messenger RNA and amino acids. Consists of 2 subunits (a 30s and 50s)the 50s subunit has a tunnel like space inside it which allows products to enter and exit.

179
Q

What is the active site of a ribosome?

A

the location in an enzyme where the enzyme catalyses reactions. located in the tunnel of the 50s subunit of RNA.

180
Q

Why is a ribosome sometimes called a ribozyme?

A

because of the enzymatic function of the RNA in synthesizing proteins.

181
Q

Mitochondrion - what is it?

A

a highly specialized organelle with a double membrane.Not found in prokaryotes.

182
Q

What is the function of the Mitochondrion?

A

it makes ATP via very complex enzymatic cascades.

183
Q

Does mitochondria have its own DNA?

A

Yes, They can divide by themselves, separately of their host cells via fission. they make all their own enzymes.

184
Q

Vacuoles and vesicles - what are they in general?

A

pinched off from ER and Golgi bodies and filled with a specific product for transport. eg peroxisomes are hydrogen peroxide filled vacuoles.

185
Q

What is it called when particles or external masses are surrounded by part of the plasmalemma to incorporate or expel it into/out of the cell?

A

endocytosis or phagocytosis (in)exocytosis (out)

186
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

common vacuole that digests proteins.Lys - to split or digest

187
Q

What is the act of breaking down complex substances by enzymes into smaller molecules called?

A

Catabolism

188
Q

What is the building processes of the cell that assembles structures and stores molecules called?

A

anabolism

189
Q

What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

A

gives a cell volume and structure.

190
Q

What is the cytoskeleton made of?

A

Microtubules - stiff protein tubes

191
Q

What are the two types of microtubules?

A

Intermediate filaments& microfilaments

192
Q

What are filaments mostly made of?

A

actin - a protein which can stretch and contract within the cell

193
Q

cells adhere to each other to form what?

A

Tissues

194
Q

how do the cells stick to each other to form tissues?

A

Cells adhere by tight junctions and communicate via desmosomes. This provides structure and function.

195
Q

What is a cell primarily structured by?

A

lipid bilayer membranes of phospholipids, cholesterol and embedded proteins.

196
Q

What is the most abundant molecule of membranes?

A

Phospholipids. They give the membrane its primary properties.

197
Q

What are the functions of a membrane?

A

Give separation, give efficiency and organization to cell, protect from external imbalance, allows selective transport of almost any material in or out of cell (including H2O), & creates ground for manufacturing, storage & space for cell products

198
Q

Are phospholipids polar or non-polar?

A

Both. The phospho is polar and the lipid is non-polar.

199
Q

Many proteins and carbohydrates are embedded in the plasmalemma, ER, and RER. What are some examples of these proteins and carbohydrates?

A

Proteins:
enzymes, receptor proteins (bind hormones and transmitters), channel proteins (selectively allow ions and molecules through the membrane), carrier proteins (carry hormones or other molecules through the membrane.
Carbohydrates:
glycolipids (lipid-glycogen molecules), glycoproteins (protein-glycogen molecules)

200
Q

What do carbohydrates imbedded in plasmalemma, ER and RER do?

A

They operate as cell lubricants, adhesives, identifying markers and receptors.

201
Q

What is active transport?

A

proteins on the plasmalemma use ATP to move molecules in and out of the cell. Usually occurs against the concentration gradient.

202
Q

What is Passive Transport?

A

proteins utilize natural chemical gradients of concentration or other properties to move molecules in and out of the cell without expending any energy.

203
Q

Do Channel Proteins use active or passive transport?

A

Active

204
Q

Do Carrier Proteins use active or passive transport?

A

passive

205
Q

What are Receptors?

A

proteins which are the communication devices of the cell and its nearby bloodstream and tissues. They receive molecular signals from the exterior and communicate a message to the interior of the cell.

206
Q

What is a ligand?

A

The name for the messenger molecule (be it hormone, ion, neurotransmitter, protein) that binds to the receptor protein to communicate with the cell. It will start a cascade of activities signaling the cell of changed conditions without it.

207
Q

What is a G -protein Receptor?

A

A common receptor type with complex activity. It is the receptor protein that 50% of pharmaceutical drugs are designed to affect. The G-protein receptor is activated and then in a complex signaling process it turns on or off/opens or closes an ion channel allowing an ion flux into or out of a cell.

208
Q

what are Carbohydrates?

A

simple and complex sugars (starch)

209
Q

What are lipids made from?

A

aliphatic chains and sterol

210
Q

What are nucleic acids made from?

A

nucleotides

211
Q

what does suffix -ose designate?

A

Carbohydrate - whether starch or sugar

212
Q

What does “saccharide” designate?

A

another term that will indicate sugar or carbohydrate.

213
Q

What is a starch?

A

macromolecular sized carbohydrates made of repeating subunits of sugars. (complex sugars)

214
Q

simple sugars are…?

A

mono or disaccharidesmonosaccharides are the basic building block of all starches and sugars

215
Q

What are complex sugars?

A

polysaccharides

216
Q

What do digestion processes convert starches and sugars to?

A

glucose - a biological sugar that cells utilize in energy production.

217
Q

What is the characteristic structure of a monosaccharide sugar?

A

a ring of 4 or 5 carbohydrate atoms with 1 oxygen atom included in the ring with numerous OH- (hydroxyl) groups attached to the ring.

218
Q

Monosaccharides are single sugar moieties or subunits or building blocks. These single subunits can also be called…?

A

Monomers

219
Q

What is a disaccharides?

A

two monosaccharides bonded by and oxygen bridge using dehydration synthesis reaction. Now called a dimer.

220
Q

What is an oligosaccharide?

A

a small length polysaccharide with 3 to 10 sugar subunits.

221
Q

Plants create three major starch types synthesized from glucose. What are they?

A

Amylose, Amylopectin, Cellulose

222
Q

What is cellulose used for in a plant?

A

structure

223
Q

What is amylose and amylopectin used for in a plant?

A

energy storage molecules, easily broken down to glucose

224
Q

What is glycogen?

A

an important starch created by animals and stored in the liver and skeletal muscles.Primary source of carbohydrate storage in animals. created from glucose subunits.

225
Q

What is the most important monosaccharide in biological systems?

A

Glucose; it is the fuel for mitochondrion to make ATP

226
Q

What are the two forms of enantiomers (mirror image molecules) glucose exists as?

A

L-glucoseD-glucose

227
Q

Which enantiomer of glucose is used for energy generation?

A

d-glucose

228
Q

Is glucose a ring or a chain?

A

it moves back and forth between ring and chain structure when dissolved. The rate is determined by the pH of the solution (cytoplasm)

229
Q

what is a Chiral Conformation?

A

simple position change of certain groups or elements of a molecule (not an enantiomer, which all parts flip)

230
Q

what are the two distinct chiral conformations of glucose?

A

alpha and beta only b-D-glucose is utilized in glycolysis; a-D-glucose is rapidly converted to beta by an enzyme so we can use it

231
Q

What is a ketose sugar?

A

a 6-carbon simple sugar with a ketone group.

232
Q

What kind of sugar is Fructose?

A

a ketose sugar

233
Q

Is fructose a ring or a chain?

A

it flips back and forth in solution and has a and b_ chiral forms

234
Q

What is dehydration synthesis?

A

when 2 monosaccharides are bonded by an enzyme molecule, H2O is released, as if the new molecule has dried out a bit. Thus, the bonding dehydrates. In sugars it is called a glycosidic bond.

235
Q

What is a glycosidic bond?

A

a bond formed by dehydration synthesis linking sugar monomers.

236
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

a catabolic process where macromolecules like proteins and carbohydrates are broken down into their individual subunits. It uses water and is the opposite of dehydration synthesis.

237
Q

What is amylose?

A

a long chain plant starch of glucose monomers.

238
Q

the generation of glycogen from monomers is called_

A

glycogenesis

239
Q

hydrogen bonding

A

weak bonds that give cellulose its strength and flexibility

240
Q

what is a chitin?

A

A structural and protective animal starch which makes the protective exoskeletons of insects.

241
Q

What is Chitin made from?

A

a polysaccharide of repeating monomers of N-acetyl glucosamine (a sugar-amino monomer)

242
Q

What is metabolism?

A

the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life.

243
Q

What is the most commonly used molecule to generate cellular energy?

A

charbohydrates

244
Q

What creates ATP?

A

carbohydrates in the form of glucose fuel the systems that create ATP.

245
Q

What are teh 2 methods to generate ATP?

A

glycolysis creates substrates that feed the kreb’s Cycle followed by Oxidation Phosphorylation to create ATP.Prokaryotes use only glycolisis.

246
Q

What is the utilization of glucose and other small molecules to create ATP called?

A

cellular respiration

247
Q

What is Anaerobic respiration?

A

respiration taking place without oxygen.

248
Q

aerobic respiration

A

requires O2, but produces an abundance of ATP and CO2

249
Q

Is glycolysis anaerobic or aerobic respiration?

A

anaerobic

250
Q

Is the Kreb’s cycle anaerobic or aerobic?

A

aerobic

251
Q

What are the 5 points on the general metabolism chart of carbohydrates?

A

1- large carbohydrates degraded to simple sugars
2- sugars enter glycolysis and form pyruvate + 2 ATP = NADH
3- pyruvate converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A
4- acetyl CoA enters Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
5- ATP produced from oxidative phosphorylation of Krebs products plus CO2

252
Q

What does glycolysis metabolize simple sugars to create?

A

pyruvic acid (2 pyruvic, 2 NADH and 4 ATP) [net gain of 2 ATP]
b-D-glucose is the only simple sugar that enters the glycolitic cycle. This process uses 2 ATP.

253
Q

Where does Glycolysis take place?

A

In the cytoplasm of cells. Can also take place in the mitochondrion

254
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

the process of creating glucose from molecules like lactate or amino acids to make ATP.

255
Q

Do we want gluconeiogenesis?

A

no. only occurs when blood sugar is too low.

256
Q

What is ATP?

A

Adenosine Triphosphate. The usable form of energy in the body. The result of Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain.

257
Q

What are the primary structural component of membranes?

A

phospholipid fatty acids

258
Q

What stores energy for making ATP?

A

lipids

259
Q

Lipids store energy in the form of what for use in the making of ATP?

A

Lipds store energy in the form of hydrocarbons to provide energy for the making of ATP.

260
Q

What macromolecules are messengers in the bloodstream as hormones and prostaglandins?

A

lipids

261
Q

What are fat soluble vitamins?

A

A,D,E,K

262
Q

Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

A

hydrophobic

263
Q

What are the three structural types of Lipids?

A

Fatty Acids, Glycerols, Sterols

264
Q

What are the four types of lipids found in biological systems?

A

fatty acids, non-glyceride lipids, glyceride lipids, complex lipids

265
Q

What is the most crucial role of a fatty acid?

A

acting as an aliphatic chain in the structuring of cell bilayer membranes, mostly as phospholipids

266
Q

Are fatty acids mostly non-polar or polar?

A

Most are non-polar, but their acid heads lend some solubility in water and hence can be used to emulsify non-polar and polar substances. Soaps are salts of fatty acids.

267
Q

What is emulsification?

A

the dissolving of non-polar and polar molecules. Soaps are fatty acids with a K+ (potassium) end ionically bonded to it. The fatty acid end attracts the lipid and the salt end allows the molecule to be dissolved in water and washed away.

268
Q

What is a fatty acid?

A

a hydrocarbon chain (with either single or double bonds) capped with a Methyl Group (CH3) on one end and a Carboxyl Group on the other.

269
Q

How does the fatty acid molecule differentiate?

A

The Carboxyl Group is easily replaced or added, to form various kinds of fatty acids.

270
Q

What is the structure of a phospholipid?

A

the bonding of a phosphate group to a fatty acid creates a phospholipid.

271
Q

What is sterol?

A

A basic molecular backbone used to make cholesterols and sterol hormones like corticosteroids and gonadal hormones.
6 carbon rings with one 5 carbon ring

272
Q

What is the precursor molecule for sterol-based compbounds and why?

A

Cholesterol; it is needed to manufacture hormones like estrogen, etc.

273
Q

What are sphingolipids?

A

a non-glyceride lipid constructed from a fatty acid called Sphingosine with an amino (nitrogen containing) alcohol plus a long chain fatty acid.

274
Q

What are the three types of glyceride molecule?

A

mono- di and tri- glycerol named for the number of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone.

275
Q

What are the two important & most common diglycerides used in the lipid bilayer?

A

Phosphatidylcholine, Phosphatidylethanolamine

276
Q

What is a liposome?

A

A complex lipid that is a small sphere of bilayer and stores or transports polar, water soluble molecules.

277
Q

What is a Micelle?

A

a single layer of phospholipid that stores or transports non-polar, fat soluble molecules.

278
Q

How does a liposome and a micelle differ?

A

liposomes are bilayer, micelles are single layer.Liposomes transport or store polar molecules, Micelles transport or store non-polar molecules.

279
Q

What is a Lipoprotein?

A

A complex lipid. A liposome that has proteins embedded in it.

280
Q

What is a chylomicron?

A

a lipoprotein micelle that transports triglycerides and cholesterol throughout the body in the bloodstream.

281
Q

What is prostaglandin?

A

A lipid (fatty acid) that serves as a pain messenger.

282
Q

What are prostaglandins made from?

A

arachidonic acid synthesized from linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that humans do not synthesize but must get from food.

283
Q

What is arachiodonic acid?

A

It is an fatty acid with four double carbon bonds that can be very inflammatory in the body causing oxidative stress but also easily combines to form important molecules like prostaglandins.

284
Q

Why are Arachiodonic acid and prostaglandins important in our body?

A

they play important messengering roles in: blood clotting, creating an inflammatory response, menstrual cramping, protecting the stomach lining, bronchorestriction and bronchodialation in the lungs.

285
Q

How are sterol backbone molecules utilized?

A

to produce hormones, digestive bile acids and cholesterol, important gonadal hormones: testosterone, estriol, estradiol, progesterone. Adrenal hormones: glucocorticoids and corticosteroids.

286
Q

What happens to the production of adrenal hormones when the body is under stress?

A

less of the anti inflammatory hormones, glucocorticoids and corticosteroids are produced

287
Q

How do lipid messenger molecules enter a cell?

A

In the standard way as other molecules (e.g. neurotransmitters and peptides): by entering a cell receptor site and beginning a chain of events signaling the cell of changed conditions. This triggers a cascade of actions within the cell.

288
Q

How are lipids metabolized?

A

lipids pass through the stomach into the duodenum and jejunum where bile salts delivered from the liver break up lipid globules into small micelles. Lipase enzymes from the pancreas are incorporated into the micelle with the fat or oil. The micelles are small enough to fuse with small intestine epithelial cells by endocytosis and begin their digestive journey.

289
Q

What is Bile?

A

water soluble sterols

290
Q

How do bile and lipase function together to help digestion?

A

The emulsification of fat by bile (with lecithins - phosholipid emulsifiers) in the duodenum, lipase enters to break down the triglycerides and joins the emulsified fat in micelles and are carried into the rest of the intestine as Micelle Droplets. The micelle then fuses via endocytosis with the cell wall of the villus and the emulsified fat is absorbed.

291
Q

What is the small intestine lined with?

A

villi - three layers of villusvilli are made of columnar epithelium cellsvilli maximize absorption

292
Q

How is bile excreted?

A

Sensory nerves tell the liver to excrete bile. The gall bladder is only activated when large quantities of fat are sensed.

293
Q

When the micelles are joined with the lining of the intestine, what happens?

A

the micelles are protienated, special proteins are embedded in the droplet bilayer and become chylomicrons (via the golgi complex inside the parenchyma cell on the villi) and release to the lacteals of the lymph systems.

294
Q

Are lipids digested and released into the blood stream?

A

No, lipids are emulsified and enter the lymph system.

295
Q

What is a lymph lacteal?

A

a tube of cells, lika a capillary of the lymph system.

296
Q

Where do chylomicrons travel?

A

They are formed in the golgi complex (with lipid and lipase) and are released into the lymph. The chylomicrons catalysis the fats into glycerol and fatty acids. The lypmh system delivers these to the blood stream via the superior vena cava. This is how we get our fat soluble vitamins into our blood stream.

297
Q

b-oxidation is used to generate what?

A

ATP. b-oxidation is a very efficient way to burn calories, it is a lipid energy generation pathway which provides metabolites for the Krebs Cycle using lipids for fuel.

298
Q

What is the end product of b-oxidation?

A

Acetyl Coenxyme A (ACA) form acetyl units cleaved from lipid fatty acid chains. Also produces NADH and FADH2 which are important energy carrier molecules.

299
Q

What kind of process is b-oxidation?

A

a degradation process; a classic catabolic process

300
Q

Where does b-oxidation take place?

A

in the matrix of the mitochondrion

301
Q

What is a degradation process?

A

a process in which something is degraded into component parts in measured steps. a classic catabolic process.

302
Q

For each acetyl group that enters the b-oxidation cascade, what is produced?

A

Acetyl Coenxyme A is abundantly made which directly feeds the Krebs CycleFor every 2-carbon acetyl group oxidized away from the fatty acid. 2 coenzyme A are used and 1 ATP is used and 1 FADH2 and 1 NADH are produced.

303
Q

What is the most common way to metabolize lipids for energy generation?

A

b-oxidation

Bio Chem (3 decks)

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