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Biochemistry > Biochem Final NEW > Flashcards

Biochem Final NEW Flashcards

1
Q

Adenylate Kinase

A

2 ADP <—> ATP + AMP

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2
Q

Role of Creatine

A

Phospho-creatine + ADP
Creatine Kinase
(More diffusable than ATP)

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3
Q

3 Most important Substrate Level Phosphorylation

A

1) Phosphoglycerate Kinase
2) Pyruvate Kinase
3) Succinate-CoA Ligase

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4
Q

PDHc Function

A

Pyruvate —> Acetyl-CoA + CO2
in Mitochondria

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5
Q

PDHc Structure

A
  • E1: Pyruvate D.H (coe. TPP)
  • E2: Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase
  • E3: Dihydrolipoyl D.H
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6
Q

PDHc Steps

A

1) Pyruvate decarbox. to Ethanol residue
2) Oxidised by Lipoic acid (S-S), Acetyl-CoA release
3) Lipoic acid left reduced (S-H)
4) H from S-H taken by E3, FAD to FADH2
5) FADH2 transfers to NAD to NADH

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7
Q

Main regulator of PDHc

A

Pyruvate D.H Kinase (PDK)
Phosphorylation and inactivation
Transcription of it either Activated or Inh by substrates

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8
Q

Where does TCA happen

A

Mitochondria

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9
Q

Enzymes having Fe-S

A
  • Aconitase
  • Succinate D.H
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10
Q

Only example of SLP in TCA

A

Succinate Thiokinase
(Succinyl-CoA Ligase)

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11
Q

Isoforms of Succinyl-CoA Ligase/Thiokinase

A

ATP or GTP form
Differ at B subunit
G2 or A2

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12
Q

Where are Adenylyl Kinase and Creatine Kinase found?

A

Intermembrane space of Mitochondria

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13
Q

Mitochondrial ATP synthase

A
  • 2.7 Protons needed for 1 ATP
  • Form dimers causing folding of inner mitochondrial membrane
  • Can be reversed when H is needed
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14
Q

P:O Ratio

A

ATP produced per Oxygen atom reduced by ETC.
- NADH: ~2.5
- FADH2: ~1.5

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15
Q

ETC 1 Inhibitors

A
  • Rotenone
  • Amobarbital
  • Piericidin A
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16
Q

ETC 2 Inhibitors

A
  • Carboxin
  • TTFA
  • Malonate (comp.)
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17
Q

ETC 3 Inhibitors

A
  • Antimycin A
  • BAL
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18
Q

ETC 4 Inhibitors

A
  • CO
  • CN (cyanide)
  • H2S
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19
Q

Uncouplers

A

Allow entry of H back into Mitochondrial matrix instead of through ATP synthase
Less ATP Productuon
2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)

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20
Q

Oligomycin

A

ATP synthase inhibitor

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21
Q

Glycerophosphate shuttle

A

1) DHAP to Glycerol Phosphate in Cytosol NADH —> NAD+
2) Glycerol Phosphate to DHAP in Mitochondria FAD —> FADH2
(G3P D.H)

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22
Q

Malate Aspartate Shuttle

A

Important to regulate Glycolysis and Lactate Metab. in Heart

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23
Q

SGLT1 vs SGLT2

A
  • 1: Intestine & Kidney, High Affinity
  • 2: Kidney, Low affinity
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24
Q

Role of 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate in RBC

A

Decreases haemoglobin affinity to O2, making it easier to give up O2 in tissues that require it

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25
Q

Where is primary place of Fructose metabolism

A

Liver
by FructoKinase

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26
Q

Aldolase A & B

A
  • A: Only F-1,6-BP
  • B: F-1-P & F-1,6-BP
  • (B - Both)
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27
Q

Intrerchanging reaction bw Glucose/Sorbitol/Fructose

A

1) Glucose to Sorbitol by Aldose Redutase (NADPH)
2) Sorbitol to Fructose by Sorbitol D.H (NAD+)

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28
Q

What is used to synthesize Lactose

A

Glucose + UDP-Galactose
by Lactose Synthase

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29
Q

Clinical Aspect of Galactose metab.

A

Aldose reductase can form Galactitol from Galactose
Causes Cataract

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30
Q

Where does Gluconeogenesis Occur?

A

Liver and Kidney

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31
Q

PEPCK Action

A

Oxaloacetate to PEP
(GTP)

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32
Q

PEPCK Regulation

A

Only regulated by Gene expression
NO short term regulation

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33
Q

Pyruvate Carboxylase Action
(+prosthetic Group)

A

Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate
(ATP)
Biotin

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34
Q

Biotin Dependent carboxylases (3)

A
  • Pyruvate Carboxylase
  • Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
  • Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
    (+degradation of leucine)
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35
Q

Why is Malonyl-CoA found in Muscles even tho we don’t synthesize fats there?

A

Used as an important regulator for B-oxidation to stop it when we need fats so it is still required

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36
Q

Where is Glucose-6-P dephosphorylated

A

Taken in to Lumen of ER for better control of Dephosphorylation
(Not found in muscle)

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37
Q

Role of Fructose-2,6-BP

A

Acts as a regulator for PFK-1 & FBPase
Produced by PFK-2

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38
Q

PKA effect on Glycogen Synthesis

A

1) Can phosphorylate Glycogen Synthase, stopping it
2) Phosphorylates Phosphorylase Kinase, activates Glycogen phosphorylase, breaks down Glycogen

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39
Q

Does glucose inhibit Glycogen Phosphorylase?

A

Yes, in the liver.
Not, in muscles.

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40
Q

Function of Alanine

A

Safe way to carry ammonia in blood to Liver after a.a breakdown in Muscle

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41
Q

How is Alanine formed in Muscle?

A

Alanine aminotransferase
(transaminase)
Pyruvate + Glutamate
= Alanine + a-KG

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42
Q

Where does Lactic Acid Cycle (Cori) Occur?

A

Liver & Muscles

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43
Q

Function of Lactic Acid/Cori Cycle

A

Uses Lactic acid produced by anaerobic respiration in Muscles to make Glucose in Liver

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44
Q

PPP use

A

Produces NADPH and Ribose-5-Phosphate

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45
Q

How does body sense Glucose Uptake for Insulin secretion

A

1) SGLT1 carries glucose in
2) GIP & GLP1 also released at same time
3) Receptors for them on Pancreatic B-Cells, release insulin

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46
Q

Incretins

A
  • Released from Neuroendocrine cells of GI tract
  • Amplify Glucose stimulated insulin secretion
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47
Q

What carries FFA in Blood

A

Albumins

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48
Q

Essential Fatty Acids

A

Polyunsaturated FA necessary for health however not synthesized in Body.
Omega 3/6

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49
Q

Pancreatic Lipase Activation

A

Procolipase —-> Pancreatic Lipase
(by Trypsin)

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50
Q

Phospholipase A1

A

Breaks FA on 1st C

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51
Q

Lysophospholipid

A

Phospholipid that has lost one of its FA chains

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52
Q

Phospholipase A2

A

Breaks FA on 2nd C

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53
Q

Phospholipase C

A

Breaks phosphate base producing PIP2 & PIP3

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54
Q

Phospholipase D

A

Breaks N-Base bw head and tail
(choline & phosphatidic acid)

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55
Q

Benefits of Phytosterols

A

Can lower blood cholesterol levels by competing with cholesterol for absorption in the intestine.
Lower LDL level

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56
Q

HDL contents

A

High Protein
High Phospholipids

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57
Q

LDL contents

A

High CE

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58
Q

VLDL & Chylomicron contents

A

High TAG

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59
Q

Apoprotein A-I

A

HDL
LCAT & ABCA1 activation

60
Q

Apoprotein B-48

A

Chylomicron

61
Q

Apoprotein B-100

A

VLDL, IDL, LDL
LDL-receptor Ligand

62
Q

Apoprotein C-II

A

Chylomicron, VLDL, HDL
LPL activation

63
Q

Apoprotein E

A

Chylomicron, VLDL, IDL, HDL
Chylomicron remnant uptake (liver)
LDL-R

64
Q

Lipoprotein Lipase

A

Hydrolysis of TAG content of circulating Chylomicrons and VLDL
(endothelium of capillaries)

65
Q

Where is VLDL secreted

A

Space of Disse in Liver hepatic sinusoids
Transport TAG from Liver to Extrahepatic tissues

66
Q

Glycerol-3-Phosphate in adipose

A

Glycerol Kinase missing in adipose, Other pathways, Pyruvate or Glucose used to DHEAP then G3P

67
Q

Thiazolidinedione

A

Increase activity of PEPCK in Adipose so more Glyceroneogenesis there, lowering blood FA levels

68
Q

Where does FA Oxidation Occur?

A

Mitochondria

69
Q

How do FA get into Mitochondrial membrane

A

1) Acyl-CoA Synthase converts them to Acyl-CoA then OMM
2) Acyl-CoA to Acyl-Carnitine by CPT-1 in IMM
3) Acyl-carnitine can pass

70
Q

Absorption of Cholesterol in Intestine

A

1) Cholesterase breaks CE to FC
2) FC taken up by NPC1L1
3) Resynth. of CE by ACATs in ER
4) Bind Apo-B48 and MTP to chylomicron

71
Q

ACAT1 & 2

A
  • ACAT1: Macrophages
  • ACAT2: Intestines, Liver
72
Q

How many Acetyl-CoA needed for 1 Cholesterol?

A

18 Acetyl-CoA

73
Q

What controls rate of HMG-CoA reductase?

A

Transcription
SREBP, SCAP, INSIG

74
Q

SREBP

A

Regulation of Cholesterol synth
- HMG-reductase activation
- LDL-receptor increase

75
Q

SCAP

A

Cholesterol sensor
Escorts inactive SREBP to Golgi to be activated to Increase cholesterol synth.

76
Q

INSIG

A

Binds SREBP and SCAP in high cholesterol state to prevent cholesterol synthesis

77
Q

How does Insulin affect INSIG

A

Reduces INSIG, less cholesterol sensitivity, SREBP act., chol. synth happens even in high cholesterol levels

78
Q

PCSK9

A

Regulation of LDL receptors
Binds to LDL-R causing its endocytosis

79
Q

IDOL in LDL regulation

A

Ubiquinating enzyme
Targets LDL and ub. for degredation

80
Q

Where can nascent HDL be produced

A

Intestinal Epithelium & Hepatocytes from ApoC-1

81
Q

What happens to Bile acids in the Ileum?

A

Reabsorbed by IBAT and IBABP and returned to Liver

82
Q

miR-33a Role cholesterol

A

When cholesterol is Low, it activates SREBP for more cholesterol and inactivates ABCA1 to stop export

83
Q

What do Outermost Layer produce hormones

A

Glomerular Cells
= Aldosterone

84
Q

What do Middle Layer produce hormones

A

Zona fascicular layer
= Cortisol

85
Q

What do Innermost Layer produce hormones

A

Reticular Layer
= Androstenedione
(DHEA / DHEAS)

86
Q

Where is P450scc found? and what delivers its substrate

A

Mitochondria
STAR lipid transporter

87
Q

What determines glucocorticoid steroid product?

A

P450 17
- 21OHase: Cotisol synth.
- 17,20 lyase: Androstenedione synth.

88
Q

What type of Steroid is Aldosterone?

A

Mineralocorticoid

89
Q

What type of Steroid is Cortisol?

A

Glucocorticoid

90
Q

MCR relevance

A

Can bind both Mineralocorticoids and Glucocorticoids.
Inactivation of GC (cortisol) allows for specific MC binding (cortisone)

91
Q

Why is DHT more potent than Testosterone

A
  • Higher affinity to Androgen receptors
  • Can not be converted to Estrogens as it is not a substrate of 5a-reductase
92
Q

Can the Placenta make Androgens? and why?

A

No
It lacks the P450 Enzyme

93
Q

What cells in the Ovaries Produce what?

A
  • Theca Interna Cells: Androgen from Cholesterol
  • Granulosa cells: Estradiol from Androgen
94
Q

What is special about a-carbon of every amino acid?

A

It is Chiral
but not Glycine

95
Q

Zwitterion

A

Molecule contains equal number of + & - charged groups

96
Q

Isoelectric pH (pI)

A

A pH value where there is no charge
(an average of pKas)

97
Q

3-C A.A

A
  • Alanine
  • Serine
  • Cysteine
98
Q

4-C A.A

A
  • Threonine
  • Aspartate
  • Asparagine
99
Q

5-C A.A

A
  • Valine
  • Methionine
  • Glutamate
  • Glutamine
  • Proline
100
Q

6-C A.A

A
  • Leucine
  • Isoleucine
  • Lysine
  • Histidine
  • Arginine
101
Q

9-C A.A

A
  • Phenylalaine
  • Tyrosine
102
Q

Negative A.A

A
  • Aspartate
  • Glutamate
103
Q

Positive AA

A
  • Lysine
  • Arginine
  • Histidine
104
Q

Polar Uncharged AA

A

Serine, Threonine, Cysteine, Asparagine, Glutamine

105
Q

Non-Polar AA

A

Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan, Proline

106
Q

What configuration do peptide bonds prefer?

A

Trans-config

107
Q

Ramachandran Plot

A

Shows statistical distribution of combinations of backbone dihedran angles Phi/Psi

108
Q

Phi ϕ

A

C-N bond angle

109
Q

Psi ψ

A

C-C bond angle

110
Q

A-Helix

A
  • Right-handed helix
  • 3.6 a.acyl residues per turn
  • compact
  • R-groups face out
111
Q

Proline in a-helix

A

Fine to be there in first turn of Helix, otherwise a helical break/bend forms

112
Q

Super-Secondary Structure

A

Structure defined as intermediate between secondary and tertiary structure
- B-hairpin
- B-a-B
- Helix-turn-Helix

113
Q

Bonds in proteins structures

A
  • 1: Peptide Bonds (Covalent)
  • 2: H-Bonds
  • 3: H-Bonds, hydrophobic int., ionic (salt bridge), disulfide (covalent) Cys-Cys
114
Q

Every 3rd AA in Collagen

A

Glycine
(proline/hydroxyproline)

115
Q

Hemoglobin vs Myoglobin function

A
  • Hemo: O2 transport
  • Myo: O2 storage in mm
116
Q

Hemoglobin vs Myoglobin Curves

A
  • Hemo: Sigmoid
  • Myo: Hyperbolic
117
Q

Fetal vs Adult Hemoglobin

A

Fetal has a higher affinity to O2, harder to release, due to less binding of 2,3-BPG
- Needed since it needs to take O2 from maternal hemoglobin

118
Q

2 Methods of Enzyme Catalysis

A
  • Catalysis by Strain (Catabolic)
  • Proximity and Orientation effects (Anabolic)
119
Q

Amino acids in Serine Proteases active site

A
  • Serine
  • Histidine
  • Aspartate
120
Q

Trypsin

A

Serine Protease
Cleaves Arginine and Lysine (basic a.a)

121
Q

How to measure forward reaction rate of Enzyme

A

1) Short time window
2) Less Enzymes
3) Initial time window (best)

122
Q

What is the Steady-State Assumption?

A

Rate of Formation of ES = Rate of disassociation of ES

123
Q

Ternary enzyme complex

A

In random sequential Binding where 2 substrates bind enzyme at same time

124
Q

Orthosteric vs Allosteric

A
  • Orthosteric: Only binds the Active site of Enzyme
  • Allosteric: Binds Active site and Allosteric site/receptor
125
Q

Tyrosine Synthesis

A
  • Phenylalanine Hydroxylase
  • Cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) + O2 = H2O
126
Q

Tyrosine Use

A

Precursor for synth. of various NT like dopamine, NE, E, TH

127
Q

Catecholamines

A
  • NE
  • Epinephrine
  • Dopamine
128
Q

SNARES

A

For NT release in synapse
1) V-SNARE (VAMP) interacts with T-SNARE (syntaxin)
2) SNAP-25 aids T-SNARE
3) Causes fusion of vesicle with PM
4) Exocytosis of vesicle contents

129
Q

What aids Uptake of Catecholamines?

A

Vesicular Monoamine Transporter-2
(VMAT-2)

130
Q

Where is Monoamine oxidase found?

A

Outer mitochondrial membrane

131
Q

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) reaction

A

Oxidative deamination of Monoamines
Dopamine, NE, Serotonin
Free radical Produced (H2O2)

132
Q

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) Types

A
  • MAO-A: Brain, GI, Liver
  • MAO-B: Brain (dop.)
133
Q

Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) reaction

A

Catech. breakdown
Methyl donor (SAM)
Brain, Liver, Kidney

134
Q

Source of DOPAC

A

Dopamine metabolite

135
Q

Source of DHPG

A

NE metabolite

136
Q

Source of 3-MT

A

Dopamine metabolite

137
Q

Source of Normetanephrine and Metanephrine

A

NE / E metabolites

138
Q

Heat production in Brown Adipose Tissue

A

Uncoupling Protein-1 in IMM of BAT
- Alternate to ATP synthase when expressed leading to energy dissipation as heat
- FA oxidation provides for ETC

139
Q

Main groups of Dopamine receptors

A
  • D1: d1,d5 Gs increase cAMP
  • D2: d2, d3, d4 Gi/o decrease cAMP
140
Q

5-HT 1 pharm.

A

Depression

141
Q

5-HT 2 pharm.

A

Schizophrenia

142
Q

5-HT 3 pharm.

A

Nausea / Vomiting

143
Q

5-HT 4 pharm.

A

Migrane

144
Q

How is GABA formed?

A

From Glutamate by Glutamate Decarboxylase

145
Q

Why can’t Ketones be used in the Liver even since they are Synthesized there?

A

No Thiophorase enzyme in Liver

146
Q

Can FFA and Ketones pass the BBB?

A

FFA - No
Ketones - Yes

Biochemistry (3 decks)

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