Bioc lec 6 Flashcards
Why must NADH formed in glycolysis be oxidized back to NAD+?
Cells have limited NAD+, so NADH must be oxidized back to NAD+ to ensure glycolysis continues as an ongoing process.
What determines the metabolic fate of pyruvate?
The metabolic fate of pyruvate depends on the available route to oxidize NADH formed in glycolysis.
How does glycolysis function under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions?
By ensuring NADH formed in glycolysis is oxidized back to NAD+ through different pathways depending on the physiological condition.
What happens to pyruvate under aerobic conditions?
It is oxidized to acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH).
How is pyruvate transported into the mitochondria?
Through a specific transporter.
Where does pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) function?
In the mitochondrial matrix.
What type of reaction does pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyze?
An irreversible oxidative decarboxylation.
Why is pyruvate dehydrogenase considered a key enzyme in metabolism?
It links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is closely related to pyruvate dehydrogenase
Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes an analogous reaction.
How many coenzymes does the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex require?
Five coenzymes.
What are the five coenzymes required by the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex?
NAD+, FAD, CoA, TPP (Thiamine pyrophosphate), and lipoate.
Which vitamins are the coenzymes of the Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex derived from?
B vitamins.
What is the next step for acetyl CoA once it is formed?
It enters the TCA Cycle.
How is NADH oxidized under aerobic conditions?
By the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) with O₂ as the ultimate oxidant.
What is the purpose of transferring electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)?
ATP generation via oxidative phosphorylation
Where does glycolysis occur, and where must NADH be transferred for the ETC?
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, and NADH must be transferred to the mitochondria.
Why are special shuttle systems required to transport cytosolic NADH to mitochondria?
The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) is impermeable to NADH.
What is the malate-aspartate shuttle?
A system used in the liver, kidney, and heart to transfer reducing equivalents from cytosolic NADH to the mitochondria.
What are reducing equivalents?
Electrons, possibly accompanied by protons, in the form of electrons alone (e⁻), H atoms (e⁻ + H⁺), or hydride ions (H⁻).
What is the glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle?
A system used in skeletal muscle and brain to transfer reducing equivalents from cytosolic NADH to mitochondrial FADH₂.
What happens to the reducing equivalents in the glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle?
They are passed onto FADH₂ and directly delivered to coenzyme Q in the electron transport chain, bypassing complex I.
What does bypassing complex I in the ETC imply?
It has consequences for the efficiency of ATP production (less ATP generated per NADH).
What happens to pyruvate under anaerobic conditions in animals?
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase, regenerating NAD⁺.
Why is the reduction of pyruvate to lactate important?
It regenerates NAD⁺, allowing glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
Where does the reduction of pyruvate to lactate occur?
In the cytosol.
Why is the reduction of pyruvate to lactate important?
It allows regeneration of NAD⁺ and redox balance, enabling glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions.
What are the consequences of a deficiency in pyruvate reduction to lactate in muscles?
Muscle fatigue and reduced ATP production during intense exercise.
How does glucose oxidation differ from fat oxidation due to this reaction?
Glucose oxidation can proceed anaerobically through lactate formation, while fat oxidation requires oxygen.
What happens to NADH under anaerobic conditions?
NADH cannot be oxidized via the ETC and must be reoxidized by an alternative pathway.
How is NAD⁺ regenerated in anaerobic conditions?
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase, regenerating NAD⁺.
Where does the reduction of pyruvate to lactate occur?
In the cytosol.
Why is the reduction of pyruvate to lactate critical under anaerobic conditions?
It ensures the continuation of glycolysis by maintaining a supply of NAD⁺.
what enzyme does pyruvate to lactate?
lactate dehydrogenase
What is the Cori cycle?
The metabolic exchange where lactate from muscles is transported to the liver, converted back to glucose via gluconeogenesis, and returned to the muscles to replenish glycogen stores.
Why is lactate transported to the liver after strenuous exercise?
To be converted back to glucose, which can replenish muscle glycogen.
What is the main purpose of converting pyruvate to lactate in muscles under anaerobic conditions?
To regenerate NAD⁺, ensuring glycolysis can continue.
What do yeast and other microorganisms convert pyruvate into under anaerobic conditions?
Ethanol and CO₂, in a process called alcoholic fermentation.
Why is alcoholic fermentation important for microorganisms under anaerobic conditions?
It regenerates NAD⁺, allowing glycolysis to continue.
What are the key enzymes involved in alcoholic fermentation, and their roles?
- Pyruvate decarboxylase: Converts pyruvate to acetaldehyde, releasing CO₂.
- Alcohol dehydrogenase: Reduces acetaldehyde to ethanol, regenerating NAD⁺.
Why can’t animals perform alcoholic fermentation?
Animals lack the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.
What is the function of alcohol dehydrogenase in humans?
It catalyzes the NAD⁺-dependent oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde, the reverse of its role in fermentation.
What is the role of the TCA cycle in metabolism?
The TCA cycle oxidizes acetate (from acetyl-CoA) to CO₂, conserving energy in the form of NADH and FADH₂.
What types of molecules can be catabolized through the TCA cycle?
Fats, carbohydrates, and certain amino acids, all converted to acetyl-CoA before entering the TCA cycle.
Why is the TCA cycle oxygen-dependent?
The TCA cycle requires NAD⁺ and FAD to be reoxidized back to NADH and FADH₂ through the electron transport chain, which is oxygen-dependent.
What are the main products of the TCA cycle?
CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and GTP (or ATP).
What is the first step of the TCA cycle?
The condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate to form citrate, catalyzed by citrate synthase.
What is the significance of the first step in the TCA cycle?
It is the only step in the TCA cycle that forms a carbon-carbon bond.
What is the second step of the TCA cycle?
Isomerization of citrate by aconitase to form isocitrate.
Why is citrate isomerized to isocitrate in the TCA cycle?
Citrate, being a tertiary alcohol, is a poor substrate for oxidation. The isomerization converts it to isocitrate, a secondary alcohol, which is a better substrate for oxidation.
What occurs during the isomerization of citrate?
The elimination of water from citrate forms cis-aconitate, which is then hydrated to form isocitrate.
what catalyzes citrate to its next form in TCA and what is this next form called?
aconitase catalyzes citrate to isocitrate
what does isocitrate become next in TCA and what does this? What coupled reaction occurs as well?
isocitrate dehydrogenase makes isocitrate into alpha-ketoglutarate.
NAD is reduced to NADH +H
What happens in Step 4 of the TCA cycle?
The oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate, catalyzed by the α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, converts α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA.
What is the product formed from α-ketoglutarate in Step 4?
What does the coupled reaction produce?
Succinyl-CoA, a high-energy thioester.
CoASH oxidized to CO2
and NAD reduced to NADH +H
What is the reaction mechanism of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex similar to?
It is identical to the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, involving decarboxylation and the formation of a high-energy thioester bond.
What occurs in Step 5 of the TCA cycle?
The high-energy thioester bond of succinyl CoA is hydrolyzed in a reaction coupled to either GTP or ATP synthesis.
Which enzyme catalyzes Step 5 of the TCA cycle?
Succinyl CoA synthetase.
What type of intermediate is formed during Step 5 of the TCA cycle?
A phosphoenzyme intermediate is formed.
What happens first in the reaction mechanism of Succinyl CoA synthetase?
Inorganic phosphate displaces coenzyme A from succinyl CoA to form a high-energy acyl phosphate (succinyl phosphate).
What residue at the active site of Succinyl CoA synthetase is involved in the reaction mechanism?
A reactive histidine residue at the active site of the enzyme accepts the phosphate.
What is released when the histidine residue accepts the phosphate in the Succinyl CoA synthetase mechanism?
Succinate is released.
How is the phosphate transferred in the Succinyl CoA synthetase reaction mechanism?
The phosphate is transferred from the phosphoenzyme to ADP (or GDP), releasing the free enzyme.
What happens in Step 6 of the TCA cycle?
Succinate is oxidized to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase.
What coenzyme does succinate dehydrogenase use in Step 6 of the TCA cycle?
Succinate dehydrogenase uses FAD to oxidize succinate
What type of bond is formed in the reaction between succinate and fumarate in Step 6 of the TCA cycle?
The reaction forms an alkene (double bond) between the two carbons of fumarate.
What is the reaction in Step 6 of the TCA cycle analogous to?
It is analogous to the acyl-CoA dehydrogenase reaction of β-oxidation.
what coenzyme is used in step 6 of TCA cycle where succinate becomes fumarate?
FAD is reduced to FADH2
What happens in Step 7 of the TCA cycle?
Fumarate is hydrated to form malate.
Which enzyme catalyzes the hydration of fumarate to malate in Step 7 of the TCA cycle?
Fumarase.
What is the hydration reaction in Step 7 of the TCA cycle analogous to?
It is analogous to the enoyl-CoA hydratase reaction of β-oxidation.
What happens in Step 8 of the TCA cycle?
Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate by NAD+, completing the cycle
Which enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate in Step 8 of the TCA cycle?
Malate dehydrogenase.
What is the role of NAD+ in Step 8 of the TCA cycle?
NAD+ oxidizes malate to oxaloacetate. This means NAD is reduced to NADH + H
What is the oxidation reaction in Step 8 of the TCA cycle analogous to?
It is analogous to the hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase reaction of β-oxidation.
What is the net equation for the Citric Acid Cycle?
Acetyl-CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O → 2CO2 + 3NADH + FADH2 + GTP + CoA + 3H+.
What happens to the two carbons of the acetyl group in the Citric Acid Cycle?
The two carbons of the acetyl group are oxidized to CO2.
How are electrons transferred in the Citric Acid Cycle?
Electrons from the oxidation of acetyl-CoA reduce 3 NAD+ and 1 FAD.
What is produced in terms of energy during the Citric Acid Cycle?
One GTP (or ATP) is formed per cycle.
Are intermediates in the Citric Acid Cycle depleted?
No, the intermediates in the cycle are not depleted.
What is the most important role of the TCA cycle in terms of bioenergetics?
The most important role is to generate high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP (or ATP) for further energy production in the electron transport chain.
In an experiment with pigeon breast muscle, the addition of fumarate stimulates the removal of acetyl-CoA in a 1:1 stoichiometric fashion. Which statement best explains this observation?
The cycle is inhibited between succinate and fumarate.
Explanation: The inhibition between succinate and fumarate prevents the normal conversion of succinate to fumarate. This causes fumarate to accumulate, and adding fumarate bypasses the block, stimulating the removal of acetyl-CoA in a 1:1 ratio.
What is Stage 3 of catabolism?
Stage 3 is Electron Transfer and Oxidative Phosphorylation.
What happens during oxidative phosphorylation?
The energy released from the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 is used to synthesize ATP.
Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?
It occurs in the mitochondria.
What types of molecules undergo oxidation in Stage 3 of catabolism?
Carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.
What happens during the direct oxidation of NADH and FADH2 by O2?
The direct oxidation releases a large amount of energy, enough to synthesize several moles of ATP.
Q: What is the formula for calculating the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG0’)?
ΔG0’ = -n F ΔE0’
What is the value of ΔE0’ for the oxidation of FADH2?
ΔE0’ = +1.04 V (calculated from 0.82 - (-0.22)).
What is the value of ΔG0’ for the oxidation of FADH2?
ΔG0’ = -200 kJ/mol for the reaction FADH2 + ½ O2 → FAD + H2O.
What is the value of ΔE0’ for the oxidation of NADH?
ΔE0’ = +1.14 V (calculated from 0.82 - (-0.32)).
What is the value of ΔG0’ for the oxidation of NADH?
ΔG0’ = -220 kJ/mol for the reaction NADH + H+ + ½ O2 → NAD+ + H2O.
Why is the direct oxidation of NADH and FADH2 by O2 energetically wasteful?
The direct reaction would be energetically wasteful because no covalent bond could contain more than a fraction of the energy released.
How are the reducing equivalents from NADH and FADH2 passed to oxygen in the electron transport chain?
The reducing equivalents are passed to oxygen indirectly along the electron transport chain.
What is the advantage of passing electrons through the electron transport chain rather than directly to oxygen?
The process breaks up the release of energy into several distinct steps with smaller free energy changes, preventing the release of all energy at once.
What is the electron transport chain composed of?
The electron transport chain comprises a special set of electron carriers, arranged in order of increasing reduction potentials.