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bio2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is role of glomerulus?

A

strains the blood—allowing fluids, ions, and molecules the approximate size of glucose or smaller to pass through into Bowman’s capsule.

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2
Q

what is role of Bowman’s capsule ?

A

catches filtrate and funnel it into proximal tubule

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3
Q

what is reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule? what about water? is solution isotonic, hypo or hyper?

A

sodium is reabsorbed via active transport and glucose is reabsorbed via secondary active transport through a symporter identical to the one used to absorb glucose from the small intestine. Water follows the solutes via facilitated diffusion. However, because water and solutes are reabsorbed in the same ratio, the filtrate remains isotonic (i.e., the volume of filtrate decreases, but its concentration remains constant).

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4
Q

what is reabsorbed in the DESCENDING Loop of Henle? what is it impermeable to?

A

it’s impermeable to salts, but very permeable to water. Water therefore flows out of the filtrate and into the medulla, concentrating the urine.

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5
Q

what is reabsorbed in the ASCENDING Loop of Henle? what is it impermeable to?

A

carries the filtrate out of the medulla and back into the cortex. This portion of the loop is impermeable to water and actively transports ions out of the filtrate and into the medulla. the medulla is hypertonic but the filtrate is less concentrated now.

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6
Q

Wha is happening in distal convoluted tubule?
**Recall that this segment passes directly by the opening to Bowman’s capsule where the juxtaglomerular apparatus is located.

A
  • regulates calcium, sodium and hydrogen concentrations— although for the MCAT we suggest you focus only on its sodium reabsorption function as regulated by the hormone Aldosterone. Recall that aldosterone stimulates increased sodium reabsorption at the DCT and the collecting duct.
  • Less important, but worth remembering, is the fact that the DCT also reabsorbs calcium in response to parathyroid hormone (PTH).
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7
Q

what is the role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? what does it set into motion?

A

detects decreased blood pressure in the afferent arteriole, it secretes Renin, setting into motion the renin-angiotensin pathway whose ultimate result is increased blood volume and blood pressure (This increased blood pressure would provide negative feedback inhibition to the juxtaglomerular apparatus).

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8
Q

Where does the collecting duct lead? what is it permeable to int he presence of what hormone and how does it affect filtrate?

A

the collecting duct carries the filtrate through the medulla toward the renal pelvis. The collecting duct becomes very permeable to water in the presence of ADH from the posterior pituitary. If ADH is present the filtrate will be further concentrated as water flows out into the very salty medulla.

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9
Q

what does aldosterone do?

A

acts on the distal convoluted tubule causing an increase in sodium uptake. Also causes reabsorption of Na+ out of the collecting duct via Na+ channels, and Na+/K+ ATPases in the cells that line the collecting duct. This increases the osmolarity of the cells lining the distal tubule, causing water to flow out of the filtrate and into the cells.
The NET EFFECT: WATER RETENTION AND INCREASED BLOOD PRESSURE

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10
Q

what does ADH do?

A

(Antidiretic hormone) acts on the collecting duct making it permeable to water. In the absence of ADH the collecting duct is impermeable to water. Because the collecting duct passes through the highly-concentrated medulla, as soon as the membrane becomes permable there is a large net flow of water out of the filtrate, concentrating the urine.
The NET EFFECT: WATER RETENTION AND INCREASED BLOOD PRESSURE

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11
Q

what is the pathway of air inhalation? (7)

A

Mouth/nose > pharynx > larynx > trachea > bronchi > bronchioles > alveoli

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12
Q

What is the tidal volume (TV) ?

A

The tidal volume (TV) is the volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, unforced respiration.

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13
Q

what are reserve volumes?

A

There are two reserve volumes, an inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and an expiratory reserve volume (ERV). This is the volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled after a normal, unforced expiration or inhalation.

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14
Q

what is residual volume?

A

The residual volume (RV) is the amount of air left in the lungs after a forced, maximal exhalation.

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15
Q

what is vital capacity?

A

Vital capacity VC) is the total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximum inflation, minus the residual volume.

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16
Q

What is movement of diaphragm during inhalation?

A

The diaphragm moves DOWN when flexed- becoming flat to increase rib cage area and enable more air to flow in.

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17
Q

What is movement of diaphragm during exhalation?

A

Up- When relaxed it has an upward- oriented convex shape.

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18
Q

what is hemoglobin made of?

A

Hemoglobin: quaternary protein made of four protein chains, 2 alpha and 2 beta. Each protein has an Fe- containing “heme” group at its center. Each heme group can hold one O2 molecule. (up to 4 O2 = 8 oxygen atom

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19
Q

If the pulmonary artery became blocked, what would be the immediate short-term effects on blood pH? What if the pulmonary vein were blocked? What if the capillary walls became impermeable to CO2? What if the alveoli were impermeable to CO2?

A

If the pulmonary artery became blocked the immediate short-term effect on blood pH would be a more acidic pH. If the pulmonary vein were blocked the pH would be more basic because the body would hyperventilate for oxygen demand and cause metabolic alkalosis.

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20
Q

what is the shape of the hemoglobin binding curve, what

A

sigmoidal

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21
Q

what causes a right shift in the hemoglobin binding curve?

A

increased H+ concentration, CO2, temperature and BPG

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22
Q

what causes a left shift in the hemoglobin binding curve?

A

decreased H+, CO2, temperature, BPP

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23
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

blood flows from left ventricle –> arteries –> arterioles –> capillaries –> venues –> veins –> vena cava –> right atrium
deoxygenated blood

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24
Q

what is pulmonary circulation?

A

Blood flows from right ventricle –> pulmonary arteries –> lungs –> pulmonary veins –> left atrium
oxygenated blood

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25
Q

Arteries ….. the heart and veins ….. to the heart

A

leaves; return

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26
Q

what are two artery/ veins that carry deoxygenated blood?

A

pulmonary artery and the veins of the systemic circulation

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27
Q

what are two arteyr/ veins that carry oxygenated blood?

A

pulmonary veins and arteries of the systemic circulation

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28
Q

What does Traveling To Bolivia mean? what valve do they stand for?

what are the other to valves?

A

TRV- Tricuspisd (valve) Right Ventricle

Bicuspid (valve) Left Ventricle

aortic and pulmonary valve.

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29
Q

which part of the heart receives deoxygenated blood? through which major veins?

A

Right atrium through superior and inferior vena cava

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30
Q

Which part of the heart receives oxygenated blood? through which veins?

A

Left atrium through the pulmonary veins.

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31
Q

What is the path of oxygenated blood out of the heart?

A

left atrium –> bicuspid valve –>left ventricle –> aortic valve –> out the aorta

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32
Q

What is the path of deoxygenated blood out of the heart?

A

right atrium –> tricuspid valve –> right ventricle –> pulmonary valve –> pulmonary vein to lungs to get re-oxygenated

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33
Q

How does the heart beat? how does PA propagate?

A
  1. The electrical signal originates at the SA node, then spreads across both atria to the AV node. There is a slight delay, then the signal travels from the AV node down the bundle of His and through the Purkinje fibers. At the end of the Purkinje fibers the signal travels cell to cell through gap junctions.

because of gap junction, the contraction is synchronized

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34
Q

What is the effect of the sympathetic NS on the heart?

A

increases heart rate and blood pressure

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35
Q

What is the effect of the parasympathetic NS on the heart?

A

decreases heart rate and blood pressure

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36
Q

What is true of blood flow as yo go from aorta , arteries to veins and to vena cava?

A

the velocity is highest at the veins where the surface area and pressure is greater, but slowest in the aorta,arteries and vena cava

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37
Q

What is the function of blood?

A

transport nutrient, oxygen, the grass, waste, hormones to and from class. + platelets to repair injuries + abc to transport oxygen + abc for immunity.

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38
Q

What is type of tissue is blood considered to be? what’s the content?

A

CONNECTIVE tissue.

RBC, WBC, antibodies, clotting factors (fibrinogen), (transport proteins (albumin). platelets.

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39
Q

What is an erythrocyte? can it undergo mitosis?

A

sack of hemoglobin; mature RBC with nor organelle and therefore cannot undergo mitosis.

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40
Q

what’s a leukocyte?

A

Normal cells with all of tis organelles involved in immune system

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41
Q

what are examples of granulocytes? how long do they live?

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

live for hours/ days

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42
Q

what are examples of granulocytes?

A

monocytes (macrophages) and lymphocytes; live for month to years

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43
Q

What is hematopoiesis?

A

the process by which all blood cells develop from stem cells in the bone marrow.

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44
Q

Blood type an example of what type of genetic inheritance pattern ?

A

codominance because you can get AB

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45
Q

Can a person with type O receive AB blood?

A

No it can DONATE to anyone but can only receive from other O type.

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46
Q

Can a person with type AB receive from anyone?

A

yes

47
Q

What is the function the lymphatic system?

A

gather excess interstitial fluid and return it to the blood

48
Q

What are lymph nodes?

A

Nodes filled with lymphocytes; monitor the blood for foreign antigens and fight infections.

49
Q

what are lymphatic vessels? what do they contain? where do they drain?

A

Contain one way value to prevent back flow and drains into two main vessels; the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct

50
Q

1) Hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis) is often accompanied by hypertension, primarily because:
A) smooth muscle lining the arteries is weakened and cannot contract.
B) there is less force against the artery wall in a rigid vessel than in a flexible vessel.
C) hardened arteries are narrowed, increasing vascular resistance.
D) new vascular pathways generate to bypass the blockage, increasing the length of the conduit
through which the blood must pass.

A

c

51
Q

What are characteristics of neurons? (5)

A
  • cell that can carry electrochemical signal
  • frozen in G0
  • depend entirely on glucose for energy
  • dont’ require insulin for glucose uptake
  • have very low glycogen and oxygen storage capability and thus require high perfusion
52
Q

what is Na/K pump?

A

ATP pump that actively transports 3 Na ions OUT for ever 2K+ ions IN to the cell. Outside of cell i more positive than inside the cell.

53
Q

What are voltage gated sodium and potassium channels?

A

integral proteins that change shape (open) in response to a disturbance in the resting disturbance in the resting potential across membrane.

54
Q

What is resting potential? depolarization? threshold potential? hyperpolarization?

A

-70mV; +40mV; 55mV; -90mV

55
Q

What happens during AP?

A
  • at resting potential
  • a stimulus –> at dendrites –> cell body –> axon hillock –> enough potential to reach 55mV –> AP propagates through saltatory conduction to terminal button –> triggers release of chemical or electrical signal.
56
Q

What happens before max depolarization?

A

Na channels opens first at threshold nd begins to close t max depolarization and K+ channels open.

57
Q

What is an electrical synapse? through what junction?

A

Electrical signals will pass quickly through gap junctions from the cytoplasm of one cell to another.
gap junctions found in heart cell

58
Q

What are chemical synapses? How are they released?

A
  • chemical synapse is a chemical/ neurotransmitter being released from a presynaptic neuron on to the dendrites of a post synaptic neuron.

-AP reaches terminal button, opens Ca+ channels, influx of calcium pushes NT vesicles and trigger mechanism to bring vesicles to the pre synaptic terminal membrane, at which point they get released.
this triggers opening of sodium channels on post synaptic

59
Q

How is the signal stopped on the post synaptic?

A
  • enzyme breaks down neurotransmission

- reuptake on presynaptic side

60
Q

What would a acetylcholinesterase antagonist do?

A

would impede the normal activity of this enzyme, which breaks down acetylcholine –> increased acetylcholine –> hyperstimulation of neurons could cause problems , such as epilepsy

61
Q

What would a acetylcholinesterase agonist do?

A

increase acetylcholinesterase activity –> less ACh –> less movement (like botox)

62
Q

What are sensory afferent neurons?

A

receive sensory signals from sensory cells.

63
Q

what are motto efferent neurons?

A

carry signals to a muscle or gland to response to the stimulus.

64
Q

what are interneurons?

A

connect afferent and efferent neurons. Also transfer and process signals. The brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons.

65
Q

What is part of the CNS?

A

The brain and spinal cord; interneurons only

66
Q

What is part of the PNS?

A

All neurons outside of the CNS; both sensory and motor neurons; somatic and autonomic subdivisions.

67
Q

What is somatic nervous system?

A

Voluntary; innervates skeletal muscle; contains both sensory and motor subdivisions.

68
Q

What is automatic nervous system?

A

Involuntary; innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands; contains both sensory and motor subdivisions.

69
Q

What is sympathetic?

A

Fight or flight- cell bodies located far from the effectors. NT: ACh at ganglia, norepinephrine at effector

70
Q

What is parasympathetic?

A

Rest and Digest- cell bodies located very close to the effector;
ACh ONLY

71
Q

What is the effect of the parasympathetic system on pupils, heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow to skeletal muscle, blood flow to the digestive organs; blood flow to the brain and to the skin?

A
  • pupils constrict
  • decreased heart rate
  • decreased blood pressure
  • decreased blood flow to skeletal muscle
  • increased blood flow to digestive organs and skin
  • decreased blood flow to brain.
72
Q

2) If a concentrated saline solution were to be injected at the proximal end of one of the collecting ducts of the kidney, what changes would be expected to urinary output and blood pressure, respectively?
A) Urinary output would increase and blood pressure would decrease
B) Both urinary output and blood pressure would decrease
C) Both urinary output and blood pressure would increase
D) Urinary output would increase, but blood pressure would remain constant

A

D

73
Q

3) All of the following changes to the physiology of the cell membrane of a neuron would decrease the sensitivity of that neuron to the propagation of a new action potential, EXCEPT:
A) a complete inhibition of ATP production and availability in the cell
B) administration of a drug that upregulates the function of the sodium-potassium pump
C) increased selective permeability of the neuronal membrane to sodium ions
D) increased rate of diffusion of potassium ions relative to sodium ions

A

C

74
Q

What is the function of the Endocrine system?

A

Exocrine glands release enzymes or other liquid into the external environment; whereas endocrine glands release hormones into the internal fluids of the body

75
Q

What hormones does the anterior pituitary make?

A

FSH, LH, hGH, TSH, Prolactin

76
Q

What hormones does the posterior pituitary make?

A

ADH and Oxytocin

77
Q

What regulates hormones produced in the posterior and anterior pituitary gland?

A

Hypothalamus

78
Q

What does the pituitary gland make?

A

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

79
Q

What does the Pancreas make

A

Glucagon (stores glucose) & Insulin (break glucose)

80
Q

What does thyroid make?

A

calcitonin

81
Q

What does embryo/ placenta make?

A

hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

82
Q

What type of hormones are steroids?

A

lipid soluble, cholesterol derivatives

83
Q

What steroid hormone is made in adrenal cortex? gonads?

A
  • cortisol & aldosterone

- estrogen, progesterone, testosterone

84
Q

What are Tyrosines hormones?

A

lipid soluble; epinephrine/ norepinephrine and water soluble.

85
Q

What are examples of tyrosine hormones being made in thyroid? in adrenal medulla?

A
  • T3 and T4

- epinephrine and norepinephrine

86
Q

How do lipid soluble hormones transport? what do they target? what membrane are they permeable to?

A

Lipid soluble hormones (tyrosine and steroids) require protein carrier or micelle/ vesicle to transport themselves; they act almost exclusively by binding to a receptor on or inside the nucleus and influences transcription. ; it is permeable though plasma membrane and do not require receptor.

87
Q

How do peptide hormones transport? what do they target? what membrane are they permeable to?

A

water soluble and dissolve in the blood; can act on any variety of cell locations; hydrophilic so they cannot dissolve through the membrane and require a membrane receptor.

88
Q

4) Polycystic Ovary Syndrome causes the formation of fluid-filled cysts on the ovaries. A researcher has discovered that female lab animals administered high doses of “male hormones,” called androgens, exhibit almost identical symptoms. The researcher hopes to develop a drug that associates with the androgens in a woman’s body and prevents them from binding to their receptors. To be effective, it is important that the drug:
A) be lipid-soluble.
B) be water-soluble.
C) have a short half-life under physiological conditions.
D) bind reversibly to its target.

A

A

89
Q

Q27. Recalling that glucagon stimulates the release of glucose into the bloodstream and insulin stimulates the uptake and storage of glucose, answer the following:
- Patient A has high blood glucose levels. Which hormone is likely to be found in highest concentration in her blood?

  • Patient B has low blood glucose levels. Which hormone is likely to be in highest concentration in his blood?
A
  • insulin

- glucagon

90
Q

Recalling that parathyroid hormone causes the breakdown (a.k.a., resorption) of bone and a concomitant release of calcium into the blood; and that calcitonin causes the buildup of bone matrix with a concomitant decrease in blood calcium, answer the following:
- Patient A has ingested a large dose of a calcium supplement. Which hormone will be found in highest concentration in her blood?
- Patient B suffers from calcinuria, a condition marked by low blood calcium. Which hormone will be found in highest concentration in his blood?

A
  • high levels of calcitonin because it decreases calcium concentration.
  • high levels of parathyroid hormones because it releases calcium from bones.
91
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus make? What are their functions?
What are target organs?

A

TRH- thyrotropic releasing hormone

  • stimulates TSH from anterior pituitary
  • T3 and T4
  • CRH - corticotropin releasing hormone to stimulate ACTH from anterior pituitary
  • target organ is adrenal cortex
  • GRHR- Growth hormone releasing hormone- stimulates GH release.
  • GHIH- GH inhibiting hormone/ SST somatostatin -
  • GnRH gonadotropin releasing hormone- responsible for release FSH and LH
  • PRH- prolactin releasing hormone-

PIH- prolactin inhibitory hormone (ex: dopamine).

92
Q

What hormone does the Anterior Pituitary releases? (FLAT PEG)

A
  • FSH- stimulate gonads-Gonads
  • LH- leutenizing hormone - menstrual cycle in women and testosterone in men - Gonads
  • ACTH- stimulates release of adrenal steroid hormone (cortisol) - adrenal cortex
  • TSH- stimulates thyroid production of pro hormone
  • PRL- stimulates milk production- mammary gland
  • Endorphins- pain management- nociception
  • GH- growth hormone
93
Q

What hormones to Posterior pituitary make? What are their functions?
What are target organs?

A
  • PP hormones are actually produced in hypothalamus but RELEASED by PP.
  • oxytocin: milk release, contractor during child birth, cuddle, … - mammary gland and uterus.

ADH- antidiuretic- water reabsorption from collecting duct- water retention and increased blood pressure.

94
Q

What hormones are made in Pancreas?

A

Insulin- breakdown of glucose

Glucagon- storage of glucose.

95
Q

What hormones are made in adrenal medulla? What are their functions?
What are target organs?

A

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine/ adrenaline - tyrosine derivatives- fight or flight.

96
Q

What hormones are made in thyroid?

A

T3&T4- triiodothyronine and thyroxine - active hormone or inactive pro hormone

97
Q

What hormones are made in parathyroid?

A
  • PTH- parathrydois hormone- increases plasma calcium (stimulates osteoclasts)
  • Calcitonin- decrease calcium levels
98
Q

What hormone is made in heart?

A

-ANP- atrial natriuretic peptide- released by muscle cells in upper chambers (atria) of heart in response to high blood volume; acts to reduce H2O and adipose loads on the circulatory system to reduce BP.

99
Q

What hormone is made in Kidney?

A

Erythropoietin- stimulates RBs production.

100
Q

What hormones are made in ovaries?

A
  • estrogen- 2nd sex characteristics; menstrual cycle.

- progesterone produced by corpus lute during luteal phase of menstrual cycle; maintenance of pregnancy

101
Q

what hormones are made in testes?

A

-Androgens, such as testosterone and DHT; secondary sex characteristics

102
Q

What hormone is made in embryo/ placenta?

A

hCG- human chorionic gonadotropin;

103
Q

What hormone is made in Thymus?

A

T cell maturation in neonates & pre-adolescents

104
Q

What hormones is made in Pineal gland?

A

melatonin- regulates circadian rhythm.

105
Q

What are the steroid hormones?

A
  • testosterone

- corticotropin hormone and cortisol hormones

106
Q

What are peptide hormones ?

A

everything that is not steroid or tyrosine derived

107
Q

which tyrosine derivative hormone is lipid soluble?

A

T3 and T4

108
Q

which tyrosine hormone is water soluble

A

epinephrine / norpeinephrine

109
Q

What can ACTH do?

A

increases cortisol secretion –> increases gluconeogenesis and decreases glycolysis –> increased blood glucose.

110
Q

What is the relative fluid and osmotic pressure of the arteriolar and venous sides of a capillary, respectively?

A

high hydrostatic pressure and low osmotic pressure, low hydrostatic pressure and high osmotic pressure.

111
Q

what’s diastole

A

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood.

112
Q

Is BP greater during diastole or systole?

A

diastole

113
Q

what’s systole?

A

the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries.

114
Q

Inflammation in CF patients can result in cell death and lysis within the tissues surrounding the alveoli. These changes will most likely result in?

A

cell lysis –> cell content will be dumped into interstitial fluid increasing osmotic pressure so fluid goes out of cell:
increased fluid flow out of the capillaries due to an increases in EXTRA capillary osmotic pressure.

bio (6 decks)

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