Bio life's complexity Flashcards

Question

Genetic drift

Answer 1

Random sampling of alleles across generations It is more influential in small populations

Answer 2

Allele frequency changes from one generation to the next. It REMOVES Variation, does NOT ADD

Answer 3

- Evolution within species that can be observed DIRECTLY acting upon natural populations - Microevolutionary process can be INFLUENCED by agents of change

Answer 4

Adaptation: - Refers to a TRAIT - Advantageous mutations can contribute to trait's adaptiveness Natural selection: - Is a process - Acts to select the Advantageous and deleterious mutations

Answer 5

Manipulating via selective breeding

Answer 6

- Most plants produce Male and Female gametes to MATE with themselves - Plants with flowers have TIME POLYMORPHISMS(some plants flower earlier)

Answer 7

- Interbreeding occurs between 2 populations sharing GENETIC MATERIAL with distinct GENETIC COMPOSITION. - Involves dispersal of individuals across space + successful breeding in new location - Barriers reduce gene flow E.g. pollen to new location or people moving countries

Answer 8

Pollen contributes to gene flow in plants. Flower color is determined by MULTIPLE GENEs

Answer 9

1. Genetic differences between population 2. Level of migration. movement or hybridization (look at notes for further info)

Answer 10

1 Migration occurs 2 Dna mutates 3 Population size is finite 4 Non-random mating 5 Fitness varies across the population

Answer 11

Evolutionary process that forms new species through reproductive isolation causing 1 evolutionary lineage to split into 2 or more lineages of distinct from all other species

Answer 12

Ancestral population divided by PHYSICAL BARRIER preventing reproduction and gene flow

Answer 13

Genetic change to accumulate and differ between populations(both allopatric and sympatric)

Answer 14

Ancestral population divided WITHOUT Geographic barriers due to Bahevours or shape flowers

Answer 15

All individuals in population/species are homozygous for that version

Answer 16

Prezygotic Postzygotic

Answer 17

Enables SPECIATION and PREVENT Gene flow

Answer 18

Barriers to reproduction BEFORE the union of nuclei

Answer 19

Barriers to reproduction AFTER union of nuclei

Answer 20

1. Geographic isolation - Gene flow can be prevented by islands 2. Mechanical - Some pollinators are specific to each flower differing in shape 3. Behavioral - COURTSHIP in birds , calling in different frequencies 4. Mating time differences - Corals release gametes that survive for short periods of time and spawn at different times 5. Ecological differences - Cichild fish evolved to live in different ecological NICHES in Lake Mawli

Answer 21

1. Fertilized egg/Offspring inviable - Hybrid embryos formed by RANA species of frog are defective 2. Interbreeding offspring can be viable but STERILE

Answer 22

Promotes speciation sometimes 3 chromosomes(A, B, C can) can be differently paired, e.g. A+B or B+C individually becoming fixed and normal pairing of the 2 groups CANNOT OCCUR in hybirds

Answer 23

Groups of actually or potential interbreeding natural populations that produce FERTILE offspring

Answer 24

Hybrids from parents interbreeding and that can produce offspring.

Answer 25

Fertile hybrids resulting from transferring pre-adapted traits from 1 species to another

Answer 26

To breed endangered species like florida panther with texas pumas,.

Answer 27

Humans x Neanderthals leading to inheritance of beneficial variation from related species accelerating adaptation and survival in new environment

Answer 28

Alleles predating the speciation of neanderthals and humans, by chance or drift, these alleles were LOST in African humansBa

Answer 29

PREVENTS 1 phenotype dominating the others and becoming "FIXED" Occur when RARE phenotypes have higher fitness than common ones, they will have strong selective advantage preventing from going extinct.

Answer 30

Lizard males displaying behavioral variations - Orange males: Aggressive, defend territory - Blue males: Less aggressive with small territories but GUARD females - Yellow males: Similar coloration to females and sneak around

Answer 31

CYCLIC It fails to reach Evolutionary Stable State with consistent phenotypes, the balancing selection occurs to maintain allele frequencies in population

Answer 32

Heterozygous individuals have fitness advantage against homozygous individuals. Example: Sickle cell anemia heterozygous will be invulnerable against Malaria

Answer 33

Describes the success of other genotypes in the population and ranges from 0-1.0

Answer 34

Mate choice, choosing mates on certain traits e.g. Females mating with Male birds with the longest male

Answer 35

Individual competition of the SAME sex competing for access to mates including: - Physical combat - Displays of strength

Answer 36

One sex(mostly females) hold preferences for specific traits Traits that are costly to bear indicate the QUALITY of the male These traits may become exaggerated and will be balanced by sexual and natural selection

Answer 37

Sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics

Answer 38

Size and Behaviors

Answer 39

Rituals like Roaring and intimidation tactics(which sometimes are bluffs like hollow large claws)

Answer 40

- Whether mating occurs - Female mating frequency - If sperm is used in fertilization

Answer 41

Evolve traits to resolve conflicts in their favor Pantry moth males with GIANT SPERM PACKETS trick females into thing that she is full so she doesn't mate with anyone else. Laying eggs for his sperm. The females evolved Genital teeth piercing the SPERMATOPHORES undoing the manipulation

Answer 42

Species must constantly adapt & evolve to survive while pitted against ever evolving species Pathogens evolve to ether host and hosts evolve to avoid pathogens Predator and prey interactions like cheetahs and springboks

Answer 43

A continuous cycle of ADAPTATIONS & COUNTER ADAPTATIONS. Each species exert a selective pressure on each the other Driving force in evolution of species shapes behaviours, physiology and ecological relationships

Answer 44

Process of 2 or more interacting species(could be the same species) affect each other's EVOLUTION through natural selection They reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection exerting selective pressure on each other. Adaptation selects for counter adaptation which selects for adaption.

Answer 45

1. Host-parasite interaction 2. Mutualistic coevolution(plant-pollinator) 3. Plant-herbivore interactions

Answer 46

Traits that harm survival

Answer 47

Ornaments: Used to attract mates, animals may shake, lengthen or spread their ornaments. Armaments: "weapons" that have evolved for intrasexual selection for access to opposite sexes.

Answer 48

1. Predator-prey 2. Plant herbivore 3. Host-parasite 4. Brood parasitism 5. Plant height

Answer 49

E.g. Monarch butterflies EXCLUSIVELY lay eggs on Milkweed species for the hatched caterpillars to eat. There's selective pressure on Milkweed to reduce herbivory. 1. The milkweed evolved HAIRY LEAVES but caterpillars shave the hair before eating leaves. 2. Milkweeds then evolve STICKY LATEX but caterpillars then attack leaf veins to turn off wax tap 3. Milkweed evolved TOXIC CHEMICALS but caterpillars evolved ability to use that that chemical for their own defenses

Answer 50

Myxoma virus Virulence level must suit rabbit: Killing too quickly reduces transmission Immune evasion Rabbit Increased genetic resistance to virus More effective immune response

Answer 51

1. Plant pollinator 2. Cleaning 3. Endosymbiotic 4. Defensive

Answer 52

Plants evolve NECTAR to entrance and reward insects to visit & sprinkle their pollen to other plants

Answer 53

Characters derived from a COMMON ANCESTOR e.g. bones in birds and bats The sequence of DNA from species of 2 species share some similarities

Answer 54

Humans can intervene and hand pollinate 2 flowers that have been reproductively isolated. Example 1 : YUP(Yellow upper Petal) gene - Illustrates how genetics can be used to REDUCE adaptive traits into their component Genetic Loci. - Identifies speciation genes(speciation involved in speciation) - Allows to understand how traits can evolve via mutations Example 2: melanism of peppered moth Industrial revolution led to darker trees which meant that darker moths better at camouflaging(selective advantage) - The gene CORTEX, large insertion caused by TRANSPOSABLE DEMENT HOPPING into the 1st intron - DNA divergence estimate gene arose -1819 Example 3: Vinegar fly - Allelic series of Cyp6g1 features transposable elements and gene duplications - insecticide resistance risen through GENE DUPLICIATION & TRANSPOSABLE

Answer 55

Refers to distribution of individuals - arise when Demographic processes produce systemic differences in allele frequencies between subsets of a larger population - May arise from ISOLATION or NON RANDOM MATING - Population structure influenced by ALL AGENTS OF CHANGE

Answer 56

Cell membrane(Cell wall) - unicellular organisms Body wall - fungi Specialized respiratory structures - plants & animals

Answer 57

- High SA/volume ratio - Partial permeability allowing selected materials to diffuse in - Very thin for short diffusion pathway - Movement of external medium(AIR)&internal medium(blood) maintain concentration gradient

Answer 58

(SA x Partial pressure x Diffusion coefficient) / Diffusion distance

Answer 59

Kidney shaped and Dumbbell shaped

Answer 60

Formed on leaf epidermis without predetermined location

Answer 61

- Next to subsidiary cells - Collectively are STOMATAL COMPLEX constrained at the leaf base with STOMATAL PORES formed adjacent to leaf veins

Answer 62

- Temp - Humidity - Partial pressure of gases - Different leaf type or places on plant as conditions change throughout growth

Answer 63

Each area of the plant takes care of its own gas exchange needs.

Answer 64

- Stems - Petals - Leaves(highest leaves, high metabolism + photosynthetically active) Has SA/V ratio - Roots, root hairs can exchange gas, H2O, nutrients

Answer 65

AERENCHYMA - Living cells have part of membrane exposed to air(loosely packed) - Leads to rapid diffusion in intracellular area of plant - Relies on PRESSURE gradients to drive gases from High to low pressure. - Cells live close to surface reducing the distance gas has to travel inside plant - Forms when cells separate or collapse LENTICIL - Small pores allowing gases in&out to interact with living tissue - Found in woody stems and shoots(photosynthesize less)

Answer 66

Due to LESS gas exachange in air Air enters through COMMON REEDS from broken stems or dead plants connected by underwater structures(RHIZOMES) that grow horizontally below the soil

Answer 67

Animals with THIN Tissues rely on O2 diffusion. Long thin bodies Co opt other structures with large SA to aid in gas exchange(Feeding tentacles) E.g. Annelid, Nematode, Platyhelminth

Answer 68

- Lack specialized gas exchange structures - Gas exchange requirements low -> Dormant for long periods Yeast(Unicellular): Switch between Aerobic & Anaerobic baed on O2 availability Multicellular: Takes place via Large branching network of MYCELIUM possessing microscopic HYPHAE extending into small crevices in soil to interact with air pocket

Answer 69

Gases moved across gas exchange surface via BODY MOVEMENTS or movement of respiratory structure to optimize Pressure gradient + Increases rate of diffusion across gas exchange surface

Answer 70

Gas moves from To & FROM has exchange surface and body tissues. Can occur via dissolution into a circulatory fluid(Blood) or DIRECTLY via network of branching tubes

Answer 71

O2 availability high but h2o loss is problematic

Answer 72

- Respiratory surfaces stay MOIST - Terrestrial animals have INTERNAL gas exchange structures

Answer 73

Gas exchange system: - Utilizes network of tubes called TRACHEA - Trachea allows DIRECT O2 delivery to tissues & cells Air enters body through SPIRACLES(small openings) located on sides of Thorax&Abdomen into the Tracheoles -> individuals -Insects can CLOSE spiracles to prevent H2O loss - Contract abdomens to VENTILATE, sucking in air + O2 inside the body Large SA allows O2 down & CO2 up of cells

Answer 74

- Vascularized lungs - Air -> Nose/month -> Branching into Bronchi -> Bronchioles(for animals with high O2 requirement) -> Alveoli - Thin lung wall + surrounded by capillaries to transport O2 in & CO2 out of body tissues - Lungs branching network = High SA for gas exchange. - Kept moist by surfactants secreted by pneumocyte cells

Answer 75

Reduce surface tension of lung aiding in diffusion of gases

Answer 76

- High rate of gas exchange due to High oxygen requirements; increases Dramatically during flight - Unidirectional flow of air ventilated by Air sacs pumping air to & from lungs in specific orders -> Fresh air passes over gas exchange surfaces during inhalation & exhalation(constant supply of fresh air)

Answer 77

- Found in birds - Increase SA interacting directly with large capillary network to exchange gases transporting them around the body. - Lungs DONT move

Answer 78

Made of individual filaments covered in Lamellae to increase SA for gas exchange O2 diffuse from H2O -> blood in the gill capillaries CO2 diffuses from body-> H2O to be expelled

Answer 79

Internal gills employ countercurrent exchange mechanism : where blood& H2O flow in OPPOSITE directions maintaining conc gradient to maximize O2 uptake and CO2 removal

Answer 80

Autotroph: Self produces majority of nutrients required for cellular respiration Heterotroph: Obtains majority of nutrients from other organisms

Answer 81

Capture sunlight(chemical energy) & fix it into organic compounds in specialized organelles(chloroplast) -> calvin cycle converts CO2 to Glucose

Answer 82

Oxidation of inorganic nutrients via CHEMOSYNTHESIS by bacteria in host

Answer 83

adaptations to collect and capture food: - Modified mouth/limbs(sucking, chewing, siphoning, sharper claws, increased mobility) adaptations for chemical digestion: - Fungi: break down decaying matter via secretion - Plant parasite: Invade vascular tissue of plants uptaking key nutrients + transferring RNA & pathogens - Carnivorous plants - Chemical or physical signal to attract their prey + digestive enzymes

Answer 84

Plant nodules(specialized root structures) where rhizobia fix N2 & receive nutrients

Answer 85

Live in association with plant Roots. Plants give them nutrients, in turn they: Produce Antibiotics Absorb unwanted chemicals form soil Facilitate acquisition of essential nutrients

Answer 86

Mutually beneficial, the Mycorrhizae receive nutrients from the plant and in turn: - access nutrients(phosphate, cu, zn) in soil normally unavailable for plants - Acts as physical barrier against pathogens and produce antibiotics

Answer 87

Via transpiration from leaf stomata

Answer 88

Permanently open pores on stems and bark provide another pathway to remove H2O gases and gases

Answer 89

Day - Stomatal transpiration balances the H2O in plants Night - Stomata closed, excess H2O and minerals in tissues, there's continued absorption of water from soil due to ROOT PRESSURE

Answer 90

Some plants excrete excess H2O & minerals in small droplets of Xylem Sap exuded from leaf margins Occurs when Root pressure > Transpiration, forcing out xylem sap through secretory cells in leaf epidermis called HYDATHODES(evolved stomata)

Answer 91

1. UREA as nitrogenous waste 2. May be reused for protein synthesis for protein synthesis ->Growth & Development

Answer 92

Cell's vacuoles in the form of AA, Salts, H2O. They can buildup in tissue which is later SHED from plant as Fruit, leaves, bark

Answer 93

Large amounts of it required Carbon(from atmosphere): Proteins, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates Nitrogen(from atmosphere): Nucleic acid, Proteins, Chlorophyll Potassium: Gas exchange regulation

Answer 94

Cl Fe - Mitochondria & Chloroplast cofactor Mn Cofactors* = substances aiding enzyme function

Answer 95

Glycogen: Glucose broken down to Pyruvate + ATP + NADH Disaccharide: Fructose + Glucose Proteins: AA gets deaminated then use to glycolysis for citric acid. AA can be used to make new proteins Lipids(triglycerides) -> Glycerol+fatty acids -> Acetyl CoA via Beta-oxidation-> Citric acid cycle

Answer 96

Detritivores or Decomposers recycling nutrients into soil or directly to plants. Getting carbon compounds from non living organic substrates or living material via nutrient absorption across CELL wall.

Answer 97

Multicellular fungi: Hyphae grows into food source Unicellular yeast: Become colonial to take advantage of food source

Answer 98

Small molecules(sugars, AA) accumulate in watery film surrounding the hyphae or yeast diffusing through the cell wall. Macromolecules + insoluble Polymers(protein, glycogen, starch, cellulose) undergo preliminary digestion then absorbed

Answer 99

Specific enzymes in exudate secreted by HYPHAE or YEAST facilitates breakdown of extracellular substrates and diffusion of products for digestion

Answer 100

Intake+Storage of food. Initial stages of chemical and mechanical digestion

Answer 101

Mostly chemical digestion +absorption of nutrients prior to defecation or evacuation of waste products

Answer 102

- Difficult + low energy food source - Mechanical digestion: 1. Mouth have teeth that can tear, crush grind, coarse plant matter 2. Stomach/crop: Very muscular so food can be squeezed and churned

Answer 103

Rumen Reticulum Omasum Abomasum

Answer 104

Food regurgitated from Rumen to Mouth for mechanical digestion passed through different stomach regions where plant matter is fermented by microbes

Answer 105

Somple stomach relying on LONG hindgut for CAECUM's microbes to ferment plant food

Answer 106

- Mouth adapted to capture prey & tear flesh - Rely more on chemical digestion(salivary enzymes + acidic stomach) - Shorter and less complex - Storage of food in digestive tract not required - Lipid broken down in midgut via bile secreted

Answer 107

Ammonia must be converted either into UREA or URIC acid

Answer 108

Release as NH3 into environment NOT energy intensive as NH3 diluted to tolerable levels

Answer 109

Uric acid excreted in solid form and Most energy intensive

Answer 110

Convert to urea(less toxic) requiring less H2O for removal and requires energy

Answer 111

Type of excretory gland drains nitrogenous waste from sacs surrounding heart down into mantle cavity to convert it to NH3 rich urine

Answer 112

Fish Mollusks and crustaceans

Answer 113

1: Filtration 2: Reabsorption + secretion 3: Excretion

Answer 114

Blood interacts with tubules via GLOMERULUS(collects larger molecules like blood and proteins). H2O + ions filtered into the tubule capsule/bowman's capsule(collects AA, salt, glucose)

Answer 115

Blood flow through another network of capillaries that interact with Renal tubules to reabsorb and secrete solutes. Altering composition of fluid in tubules, ION concentration increases as it flows towards COLLECTING DUCTS of kidney before excretion

Answer 116

Interaction between blood vessels and renal tubules in nephron ELONGATED & FOLDED to increase SA:V + diffusion rates

Answer 117

H2O balance for different fishes are different Freshwater fish: LARGER filtration to dilute urine in larger volumes Osmotic conc. of bodies is higher than surroundings

Answer 118

Cells of tubules actively transport uric acid K+, Na+ from extracellular fluid into the tubules High conc. of solutes in tubules causes H2O to flow osmotically flushing tubule content towards the gut Epithelial cells of hindgut and rectum actively transport Na and K ions from gut back into extracellular fluid Transport of salts create osmotic gradient pulling H2O out of rectal content As uric acid conc. increases, it forms colloidal suspension freeing even more H2O to be absorbed

Answer 119

Found in MAMMALS Elongates of proximal tubule functions as counter-current multiplier changing conc gradient of the surrounding tissues Extends into MEDULLA region of kidney

Answer 120

Acts/strategies INFLUENCING behavior of other organism(receivers). They've evolved specifically because of the effect they have on intended receivers E.g. Bioluminescence in elateroid beetles used as warning signals

Answer 121

Incidental source of info that may influence behavior of receiver despite not having evolved under selection

Answer 122

Chemical Electrical Mechanical Photic Magnetic Auditory

Answer 123

Chemical sensitive protein receptors activated through physical interaction with specific types of molecules 1. Direct activation Opens channel in cell membrane 2. Indirect activation Causes activation of another protein carrying the signal to open another protein channel

Answer 124

Modified chemical sensors that change shape in response to temperature enabling passage of ions across membrane

Answer 125

Motion receptors Motion sensitive proteins respond to mechanical signals(movement, strech, vibration) causing channels to open & ions to pass through

Answer 126

Light receptors Responds to SPECIFIC WAVELENGTHS of light when a PHOTON bumps into photoreceptor protein. Protein absorbs energy & temporarily changes shape

Answer 127

Mediate plant's response to light(UV->IR) as it contains the protein component bounded CHROMOPHORE(light absorbing pigment)

Answer 128

Chromophore in a specific photoreceptor absorbs specific light wavelength -> structural changes in receptor. Activation of photoreceptor triggers signalling cascade within plant cell -> gene expresssion affecting plant growth & morphology

Answer 129

Pr(Inactive): Absorbs red light Pfr(Active): Absorbs FAR red light

Answer 130

changes in light level(environmental variations) to follow their circadian rhythms via PHYTOCHROME SYSTEM: Detect changes in season by measuring photoperiod(day length) - Pfr is LOW = Winter. Pfr HIGH = Summer

Answer 131

Plant's roots grow towards gravity and shoots towards light Roots = Positive gravitropism Shoots = Negative gravitropism

Answer 132

Statocytes are gravity sensing cells which have AMYLOPLASTS and STATOLITHS(both dense starch filled organelles) that settle downward in response to gravity stimulating growth on upper side so it curves downwards

Answer 133

Directional growth in response to touch growing towards or away objects. Contact stimulates elongation on non contact side and continues Shoot - positive thigmotropism Root negative thigmotropism

Answer 134

Chemoreceptors embedded in layers of epithelial tissue in uppermost region of nasal cavity have odorant molecules bind to olfactory receptors sending ingo to nerves within the olfactory bulb when then -> brain for processing

Answer 135

Discrimination of more odorant's than olfactory receptors, odorant molecules can be complex each region may bind to different receptor proteins activating unique combination of nerve clusters(GLOMERULI)

Answer 136

Chemical signal used for communication among conspecifics triggering behavioral responses in other individuals

Answer 137

Attract mates Communicate alarm signals Mock goof traits Define territories

Answer 138

Insect: Antennae Mammals : Olfactory system

Answer 139

Photoreceptors in eyes

Answer 140

through RHOPALIA(Eyespots): Numerous photoreceptors bundled into sensory structure(neurons+gravity cells+photoreceptors)

Answer 141

They move deeper H2O at day -> surface at night

Answer 142

Circadian rhythm(biological clock) control

Answer 143

SUPER CHIASMATIC NUCLEUS(SCN) sits within hypothalamus where nerves of eye crossover . SCN recieves info from eyes via Retinohypothalamic nerve tract stimulating release of specific neurotransmitters and peptides to interact with the brain and control physiological processes like sleep digestion thermoregulation.

Answer 144

Receptor: Converts stimulus -> Electrical signal -> graded potential. Once graded potential reaches threshold, nerve impulse is generated Circuit: Impulse reaches CNS through ascending pathways. Most reach PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY area of cerebral cortex while proprioceptive impulse processed in cerebellum Perceptual: Sensory signal interpreted by CNS at perceptual level and ONLY impulses processed at cerebral cortex are consciously perceived

Answer 145

Body maintains stable internal conditions in response to changing external environments

Answer 146

Physiological range of variable(body temp = 37C)

Answer 147

Measuring of temperature sensitivity based on chemical reactions Q10 = 1 Not temperature sensitive Q10 = 2 Doubles with 10C intervals Q10 = 3 Triples with 10C intervals

Answer 148

C4's optimal temperature range is narrower BUT has higher photosynthesis rate at peak

Answer 149

Radiation from sun, ground, sky, metabolism Evaporation

Answer 150

Control of internal body temperature by physiological or behavioral means

Answer 151

Peripheral nervous system detects change in temp via skin thermoreceptors sending info -? CNS -> brain hypothalamus eliciting VASODILATION & VASOCONSTRICTION or SHIVERING

Answer 152

Thermoreceptors synapse directly with interneurons that connect to motor neurons eliciting thermotatic response enabling them to move to more suitable microclimates

Answer 153

Produce body heat themselves via metabolism

Answer 154

Rely on external sources of heat(sun)

Answer 155

Maintain stable body temperature

Answer 156

Fluctuating body temperature(regularly or specific stages of life)

Answer 157

Use d to survive in cold conditions by dropping down body temp to surrounding temp = Heterothermic + Endotherm animals They use Endogenous heat to warm up from hibernation and maintain stable body temp with conditions are more favorable

Answer 158

Adjusting activities or moving to different microclimate to adjust rate of HEAT GAIN & LOSS with environment Mostly used by Ectotherms

Answer 159

Cost of maintaing body temp is minimized

Answer 160

rate of heat exchange between animal and environment determind by: Size Shape Thickness on insulation(fur, scale, fat)

Answer 161

- comparable conditions Metabolic rates most comparable between species when there are in the BASAL METABOLIC RATE: heat loss = heat gain. - Same physiological state(sleeping≠active) - Endo and ectotherms have fundamentally different rates of metabolism

Answer 162

Resting Post absorptive(no digesting or feeding) Non reproductive state Temperature(for ectotherms)

Answer 163

More cells = more respiration(metabolic rate)

Answer 164

body mass ^ 0.75

Answer 165

Self reproducing genetically identical offspring NO partner required Time and energy efficient Rapid population growth

Answer 166

New organisms produced via combination of genetic information from 2 different individuals Genetic variation Time and energy intensive slower population growth

Answer 167

process of seperating into equally sized daughter cells

Answer 168

Binary fission: - SEPARATES into equally sized offspring - initial enlargement of parent cell and duplication of nucleus before division Multiple fission: Reproduction results in numerous offspring: - common in protista(multinucleate) - nucleus divides into many parts then cytoplasm forms around nuclei and organism separates - will divide into individual cells under specific environmental conditions

Answer 169

- found in ALL domain and kingdom of life - small outgrowth on parent cell or organism forming on specific location in most species. - Breaks off to form new smaller daugher cell(parent -> 2 unequal parts)

Answer 170

- Due to sedentary lifestyle, the movement of offspring away from parent enables population persistence while reducing competition for resources - Extension of root system moves away to allow daughter plant to grow

Answer 171

- E.g. starfish - Parent organism breaks into fragments, each capable of growing indeendetly into a new organism (mature+fully formed+identical parent) - Unintentional or intentional, lost fragment may be regenerated

Answer 172

- Production of seeds WITHOUT pollination or fertilization - overcomes sterility

Answer 173

Combining favorable traits from differing varieties e.g. upper of plant A + Lower Plant B = graft

Answer 174

Occurs in multicellular plants and animals via development of offspring from an unfertilized or self fertilized gamete These organisms can also sexually reproduce e,g, aphids Sexual in autumn - lay eggs with male Asexual in summer - food abundant

Answer 175

- HAPLOID reproduces asexually - Sexual reproduction involves FUSION of bodies to become 1, this is called PLASMOGAMY, creating a DIKARYOTIC individual as the cytoplasm fuses. - This phase can last BEFORE genetic sex or fertilization occurs. - Nuclei fuse to form a diploid individual(KARYOGAMY) then Meiosis

Answer 176

- Meiosis produces spores -> Develop into adult WITHOUT fusion -> undergo mitosis forming multicellular haploid gametophyte to produce gametes. - Gametes from 2 different gemetophyte parents FUSE -> diploid zygote -> grows into diploid sporophyte

Answer 177

Sepals: Encase & protect flower buds(green) Petals: Protect other flower structures(brightly colored) Stamen & carpel: Fertile flower organs produce spores(Sperm & Egg)

Answer 178

Pollination = Anther ->stigma Fertilization = Ovules->Seeds->fruits

Answer 179

- Has BOTH male and female reproductive organs - Efficient + every parent(not just 50%) can produce offspring - Genetic variation Reaps benefits of both sexual and asexual reproduction

Answer 180

Ensures genetic variability reducing risk of self fertilization Formed by gradual investment of one of the sexes(females in humans)

Answer 181

Isogamy: Gametes SAME SIZE, equal investment Anisogamy: 1 gamete larger, 1 parent invests more

Answer 182

1. Recognition 2. Activation 3. Pathogen destruction

Answer 183

Specific immune receptors located at cell surface detect pathogens relying on their pathogen's general features known as MAMPs or PAMPs = Microbe/pathogen associated molecular patterns

Answer 184

- Cells and molecules mobilized to fight invader - Binding of the MAMP to pattern recognition receptors activates initial immune response: 1. secretion of antimicrobial peptides(DEFENSINS) break apart pathogen cell membrane 2. Produces cytokines recognized by immune system signalling the infection to activate additional responses to immune system

Answer 185

Molecules+Mobilized cells destroys microorganisms Defensin(in both plants&animals): disrupt cell membrane resulting in cell lysis and death Macrophages: Engulfing and digesting pathogens via phagocytosis. It also activates adaptive immune system to recruit additional immune cells to site of injury/threat

Answer 186

Kills both affected cell and pathogen along with it = regulated cell death

Answer 187

Innate: Rapid response barrier defesnses Internal defenses Acquired Slower response Humoral response Cell mediated response

Answer 188

- Waxy cuticle(with hair and thorns) protect epidermis from damage and invasion by unwanted microorganism - Leaves composed of cutin polymer matrix and waxes produced and secreted by epidermal cells

Answer 189

- Closes stomata - Antimicrobial chemicals Strengthened cell wall - Plants evolved resistant proteins that detect effector proteins which normally perturb plants immune system - Programmed cell death may occur to limit pathogen spread

Answer 190

Long term defense against pathogens in areas distant from infection site. Example:

Answer 191

Respiratory tract: Protected by CILIA _ produces mucus expelling out of body once trapped via coughs. Mucus also has antimicrobial properties Gut: low pH creating hostile environment for invaders Eyelids: Flaps of skin covering the eye or a membrane covering the eye(snake)

Answer 192

- ISOLATES damaged area to stop spread of damage - Recruits cells&molecules to damaged location to kill potential invaders + promote healing

Answer 193

- Secrete cytokines - Promote blood flow to infected area - Increase permeability of blood vessels + generate encapsulation/clotting response to surround site

Answer 194

The adapted cellular response to infection. Phagocytes digest pathogens and the antigens are fragmented within a PHAGOLYSOSOME(Antigen presenting cell), then moved to phagocytes surface. MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY CLASS(MHC) embed antogen fragment for presentation on the surface of the APC. The Complex is now able to be detected by T lymphocytes/cell. T-cells multiply by mitosis generating specialized t-cells. Helper t-cells secrete chemicals to stimulate growth and differentiation of CYTOTOXIC T-cells that kill damaged cells

Answer 195

Suppressor T-cell: Inhibits immune system to prevent further destruction of host tissue Memory T-cell: Stays after infection period for if pathogen is rencountered.

Answer 196

Adaptive response to pathogens in blood & lymph

Answer 197

pathogens detected by white blood cells(b-cells) recognizes specific antigens on bacteria. Once B-cells are activated they proliferate & differentiate into PLASMA cells that secrete millions of antibodies that circulate throughout the body activating defense mechanisms

Answer 198

Neutralization: Antibodies bind to pathogen's surface neutralizing its ability to infect host ceell Opsonization: Pathogens opsonized(tagged) for engulfment & destruction by phagocytosis(via macrophages and neutrophils) Complement system: Complex proteins activated further enhancing opsonization and destruction of pathogens

Answer 199

Memory B-cells continue to produce small amount of antibodies after so it can target if the pathogen re-enters.

Answer 200

Pattern of survival & reproductive event for a species

Answer 201

Semelparous: Individuals breed ONE time in life Iteroparous: Individuals potentially breed potentially multiple times in life

Answer 202

Perennials: 1 generation over several years Annuals: 1 generation per year

Answer 203

organisms's reproductive capacity(no. of offspring)

Answer 204

Time & energy invested in offspring

Answer 205

If there are many offspring, not much time can be allocated to. Fewer offsprings allow for more time and energy to be invested

Answer 206

Late reproduction strategy Long lived, larger body size Energy invested in growth and larger size lower mortality rates Early reproduction strategy Short lived, small in body size Energy invested in reproduction rather than growth

Answer 207

K selection: Selection for traits advantageous in high density populations populations more stable r selection: Selection for traits advantageous in low density populations populations less stable under go boom and busts

Answer 208

Group of the same species living in the same location - relying on the same resources, - influenced by similar environmental conditions - interact with each other

Answer 209

Natural: Lake extent for fish, island size for terrestials Arbitrary(national parks) Human imposed We have to match the boundary to the purpose of study and organism.

Answer 210

how many individuals in population and how they change overtime. Birth: Increase no. of population Death decrease no. of population Emigration: Individuals leave population Immigration Individuals enter population

Answer 211

Extent of how individuals are spread in population

Answer 212

By sex ratios and the age structure

Answer 213

1. Full census Count every single detail which is time and labour intensive 2. Sampling estimate Distribute ploys and count all individuals in plot estimating density and then extrapolate across entire range

Answer 214

Catch individuals -> mark them -> return to population to allow them to reproduce -> recapture individuals from that population

Answer 215

- mark remains for length of study - Marks don't decrease survivability of individual - Probability of recapture remains consistent(some are trap shy or trap prone) - Closed population(no birth, death, immigration)

Answer 216

Systematic over of under estimation of abundance Open population methods account for this

Answer 217

Natural marks: Patterns on dorsal fin of dolphins Artificial marks: Neck/leg collars or dyes on shell

Answer 218

When animals are hard to capture or spot, presence of signs OR individuals in population to measure relative abundance(footprints) They are less intrusive and more ethical

Answer 219

- Estimate population size change over time - Used to understand population dynamics

Answer 220

- Not limited by resources - Cannot go forever, eventually reach CARRYING CAPACITY R>0

Answer 221

-Limited by resources - R<0 - Logistic growth decreases linearly as it reaches the carrying capacity

Answer 222

They change population size regardless of density individuals - Heatwaves - Pollution - Storm

Answer 223

Change population growth depending on no. of individuals - Competition between resources(Intraspecific) - Disease(spread more easily) - Predators(they are attracted to high density prey areas)

Answer 224

limit population growth

Answer 225

promote population growth (e.g. Dazzle of zebra to avoid predators)

Answer 226

Unpredictable fluctuations in environmental conditions - rainfall - temperature

Answer 227

Yes e.g. drought leading to less resources

Answer 228

Arises from changes in birth & death rates caused by random chance

Answer 229

Group of geographically ISOLATED populations linked together by Dispersal

Answer 230

Support local population growth. Net exporters to other populations

Answer 231

Mortality > birth rates relying on immigration to persist

Answer 232

They REDUCE RISK of extinction

Answer 233

1. Avoid detection - Hiding/camouflage e.g. crickets look like leaf 2. Chemical defenses Dart frogs with toxins, they get it form ants and mites 3. Warning signals - Stinging nematocyst cells 4. Mimicry - Mimicking toxic species to avoid predator 5. Behavioral mechanism - Group flocking

Answer 234

Physical and biological conditions required for: - growth - reproduction - survival

Answer 235

Species' physiological capabilities

Answer 236

Actual conditions used by species after interactions with environment have been taken accounted to basically where it lives

Answer 237

- Interference competition(direct coexistence) - Exploitative competition

Answer 238

Competitors fight for common resources. Outcome depends on the efficiency of each species

Answer 239

1 species DIRECTLY interferes with another species access to a resource

Answer 240

Movement from Place of birth -> Place of 1st breeding more frequent

Answer 241

Change of place of breeding

Answer 242

- AGE prior to breeding - Sex bias

Answer 243

Animals: -active(fly, swim, walk) - passive(currents ,floods, attached to vehicles) Plants: -gravity, wind, H2O, attached to vehicles

Answer 244

-Fruit: food for animal, seed dispersed in species - attachments: sticking to animals to passively dispersed - woodpeckers dispersing acorns

Answer 245

Human activity - marine species on ships - flora imported

Answer 246

Dispersal: Spreading of individuals AWAY from others occurs any stage(adult, early) Migration: Large scale movement of species to different environment occurring periodically or predictably

Answer 247

Interaction between species that affect their abundance and mutualism

Answer 248

Commensalism: 1 benefits while other neither benefits OR harmed Mutualism: Both species benefit Parasitic: Only 1 species benefits

Answer 249

1. Obligate 2. Facultative 3. Specific 4. Diffuse 5. Endosymbiosis 6. Ectosymbionts

Answer 250

COMPLETELY rely on another cannot survive without relationship e.g. lichens and fungi

Answer 251

Can survive without each other but not as well e.g. Honey bee and pollen

Answer 252

Highly specialized specific relationship

Answer 253

Involves multiple species

Answer 254

Inside another organism/cell e.g. mitochondria

Answer 255

Live on body surface e.g. remora on sharks

Answer 256

Epiphyte plants are plants that grow on ANOTHER plant

Answer 257

Steals food from another - Hyenas stealing kills - Humans stealing bee honey

Answer 258

Micro -Small & often intracellular -Multiply in host -Virus, bacteria Macro: - Grow ON or IN host, doesn't multiply in host - Produce infectious stages that are released into environment to find new hosts - Hide in body cavities (gut) - Tapeworms

Answer 259

1. Monoxenic(1 host) 2. Heteroxenic(multiple host)

Answer 260

1 host -> grows and then excreted which can infect more by food or H2O

Answer 261

- Multiple hosts required for successful development - Reproduction occurs in FINAL/definitive host - Intermediate host: growth but NO reproduction

Answer 262

Plant & Pollinator can survive without each other but interaction enhances survivability

Answer 263

Plant & Pollinator completely dependent on each other e.g. yucca-yucca moth

Answer 264

- Colony of Fungal+Algae or cyanobacteria - algae or cyanobacteria provides food from photosynthesis and fungi protects from environment

Answer 265

Coral: - Provides shelter + sunlight - Give NH3 waste product Zooxanthellae - Recycle nutrients transfer to coral polyps - recycles NH3 to aid in photosynthesis

Answer 266

Zooxanthellae expelled form corals lead to coral bleaching and eventual death.

Answer 267

Birds and tree Kangaroo and shrub(hide from sun)

Answer 268

Hammer orchids Male thynine wasps thinking their female the orchid is a female and attempt to mate due to mimicking pheromone wasp gains nothing

Answer 269

Interactions that alter survival of individuals can affect population growth

Answer 270

Antagonistic(-) - more common in less stressful environments-> competition dominates due to abundance of resources Mutualism(+) Stressful conditions -> Mutualism are more common

Answer 271

Populations that are too large

Answer 272

- Damage agriculture - Damage other species we value - Damaging to environmental & biodiversity

Answer 273

Introduced species are problematic because: Enemies(competitors, parasites, predators) aren't introduced there

Answer 274

Using natural predators, parasites, pathogens to manage pest and weed population.

Answer 275

Cane toad: - Cane toad are non specific to cane beetles - No stages vulnerable to control

Answer 276

Cactoblastus moth: - Known natural enemy to prickly pear

Answer 277

- host specificity - high reproductive rate to deal with pest uncontrolled growth - good searching ability - most occur at same time as host - adaptable to different environments

Answer 278

Boosts natural enemy by repeated rearing & release when too few are in circulation to effectively control pest

Answer 279

Specialized life histories feeding on single prey item Females find host depositing larvae on host which feed on host when hatched

Answer 280

Inoculative augment: - Released organism + progeny perform control - Release ONCE during season - Long term + self sustained control - Fewer natural enemies needed Inundative augmentation - Control achieved exclusively by organisms released - Short-term(REPEATEDLY) - not expected to be self sustaining but still capable of reproductin

Answer 281

Promote or protect existing natural enemies

Answer 282

1. Enhancing food sources 2. Permanent shelter or habitats 3. Alternate prey of hosts

Answer 283

- Enhance predator populations - Biodiversity increases of natural enemies - Sustaining their populations even when pests are scarce - reduce need for chemical pesticides e.g. nectar and pollen flower strips

Answer 284

Re-establishing suitable shelters can bring BATS back to manage crops on farms

Answer 285

- Introduce similar species to pest ensuring natural enemies remain active and abundant when pests are scarce - Maintains consistent pressure reducing outbreak

Answer 286

- Pathogen virulence: degree of harm pathogen causes - If pathogen has low survival rate or low reproduction rate or BOTH in hosts

Answer 287

Endemic: - Constantly present in population subset - Host have some tolerance - Geographically restricted - Limited fluctuation Endemic: - Increases rapidly in smaller geographic areas - Mass mortality events

Answer 288

- Vaccination - Culling: kill some infected to prevent disease transmission - Behavioral modifications -> quarantine - Reducing vectors: insecticide of mosquitoes, removing breeding sites

Answer 289

Ability for host to tolerate infection by minimizing the damage without impeding REPLICATION or TRANSMISSION of pathogen

Answer 290

Ability to reduce chance of infection reduce pathogen replication and/or increase the speed of pathogen clearance(recovery)

Answer 291

- Exhibit FREQUENCY dependent transmission - Have long lived infectious stages - Infect multiple different hosts

Answer 292

Group of potentially interacting species occurring together in same SPACE & TIME

Answer 293

1. Taxonomic affinity: Mammals in area(note that they might not react with each other) 2. Guild: Species using similar resources 3. Functional groups: Role that species plays in community(N2 fixing plant)

Answer 294

Grassland(few trees) Forest(many small trees) Heathlands(High density of heath species)

Answer 295

Temperate broadleaf -> e.g. mountain ash forest Temperate steppe - semi arid Tree savanna - Tropical woodland Tundra Xeric shrub land - desert

Answer 296

"Species supply" filters" Outcome of evolution and biogeography(life history) "Abiotic" filters: species that require or tolerate certain environmental conditions "Biotic" filters: related to realized niche of species, the species interaction in the community

Answer 297

- regional species pool - dispersal - environment - species interaction all constantly change in ecological communities

Answer 298

Abiotic: - rainfall - temp - fire regimes Biotic: - pollination - dispersal - herbivory & disease - mycorrhizal fungi - competition between species

Answer 299

1. Change in species pool(net increase in species) - Evolution and diversification - Extinction(global change) 2. Dispersal - Species may be introduced by ppl = changing dispersal - Natural dispersal events 3. Environments Disturbances - events changing resource availability &/or physical environment of area like natural disasters e.g. 1 tree falls down or volcanic eruption 4. Species interaction - Invasive species may have large impacts on other species

Answer 300

Natural changes in COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE of an ecological community over time Communities may replace another community

Answer 301

- Species abundance - Size and layers of vegetation

Answer 302

Proportion covered by covered by the crown: Closed forest: >80% Open forest: 50-80% Woodland: 20-50% Mallee: Short multi stemmed eucalypts

Answer 303

Composition of a local ecological community with respect to its RICHNESS, EVENNESS or BOTH

Answer 304

Positive correlation: as species diversity increases, ecological stability increases

Answer 305

No, it does it indirectly

Answer 306

- resource consumption, transformation, provision - physical & chemical environment response - interactions among species(more complex food webs less disrupted when 1 species gone)

Answer 307

Increase in functional diversity

Answer 308

The sum of all interactions between abiotic and biotic factors in the environment

Answer 309

Biomes are major types of ecosystems

Answer 310

Terrestrial and Aquatic

Answer 311

Desert Tundra Rainforest

Answer 312

Freshwater Ocean

Answer 313

Rainfall and temp

Answer 314

Energy and matter transferred from low to high trophic levels as they are eaten

Answer 315

Total amount of carbon remaining in plant AFTER respiration

Answer 316

npp = Gross primary production - respiration

Answer 317

Terrestrial tropical HIGHEST due to moisture and energy availability being highest. Terrestial desert habitat = LOW High latitude = LOW cannot support due to low temps

Answer 318

Phytoplankton and algae much more dispersed and less concentrated

Answer 319

Group of organisms in ecosystem with Trophic or Energetic connections Made of multiple interlinking food chains

Answer 320

1 single chain of organisms eating one another

Answer 321

Bottom up limitation: Ecosystem regulated by availability of NUTRIENTS & Energy Top down limitation: Regulated by Consumption pressure from higher trophic levels

Answer 322

Change in rate of consumption if 1 trophic level results in change in species composition at LOWER trophic levels

Answer 323

Recycling of inorganic material between living organisms and the environement

Answer 324

returning nutrients to the soil available for plants.

Answer 325

Diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Answer 326

Humans factors -> Reduction in pop. size and no. of species -> extinction -> change in ecosystem

Answer 327

Anthropecene

Answer 328

Loss if ecosystem services(agricultural landscape, forests, clean drinking water timber, food, fodder)

Answer 329

1. protected areas 2. restoration actions 3. intensive threatened species management

Answer 330

1. Habitat loss 2. Invasive species 3. Co-extinction 4. Over-exploitation Newer ones 5. Climate change 6. Disease

Answer 331

- Reduce habitat loss - last place where some species are found e.g. national parks

Answer 332

- the removal or reduction of extinction drivers - revegetation - re-establishing ecosystems - invasive species removal

Answer 333

For highly endangered species Hold in captivity to reduce threats and have breeding program e.g. condor

Answer 334

The concept of the world eld by an individual or group

Answer 335

Low human influence: Pristine High human influence: Degraded

Answer 336

Low human influence: Sick country High human influence: Healthy country

Answer 337

Embodies set stewardship values for land and sea environments managing the country ECOLOGICALLY, SOCIALLY, CULTURALLY, ECONOMICALLY sustainable for: -using resources - health of spirit and future gen - health education economy

Answer 338

Strategic burning of patches to enhance land health at the right place and right time

Answer 339

Biodiversity decreases ,letting nature free(must be controlled)

Answer 340

Think of south africa safaris - Tree studded grassland - Very fire prone environment(vegetation fuel)

Answer 341

Unburnt vegetation(fuel) accumulates and dry lighting strikes creates huge fires

Answer 342

Controlled burning while fuel load is LOW and moist Occurs at early dry season

Answer 343

Events that influence makeup of ecosystems

Answer 344

Moderate levels of disturbance promote MORE diversity than high or low levels.

Answer 345

Current geological epoch where human activity dominantly influences climate and environment

Answer 346

- Population UP - Domesticated land - Fertilizer consumption - H2O use up

Answer 347

- Biodiversity loss - Changing land use(agriculture) -GHGs UP - Technology use UP

Answer 348

- change in atmosphere composition - upset biogeochemical cycles(CO2) - GHGs increase - Less H2O available - Less biodiversity - Sea levels RISE - Economic impact(low crop yields) - Heat waves

Answer 349

Less effective due to higher temps = more CO2 in atmosphere

Answer 350

Condition and processes that help fulfil human life directly or indirectly provided by natural ecosystems.

Answer 351

conserving/enhancing ecosystems to benefit from ecosystem services without compromising others

Answer 352

Leveraging ecosystems to respond positively to conservation/sustainability challenge so people & nature benefit

Answer 353

Trees decrease the albedo effect absorbing sunlight

Answer 354

Kids have much more time with nature Adults less, so less likely to engage in nature preservation

Answer 355

Tree reduces heatwaves Nature = increased mental health Future proof Indigenous reconnection

Answer 356

Stores(sequesters) carbon(MITIGATION) Prevent storm surge impacts(ADAPTATION) benefits ecosystem overall

Answer 357

Niche overlap