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Bio life's complexity Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Linnaeus System

A

System used to organize and characterize different organisms

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2
Q

Fossils

A

Fossil records serve as EVIDENCE explaining the past
E.g. Tongue stones identified as fossilized teeth from ancient sharks.

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3
Q

What did Mary Anning suggest?

A

ANimals could go extinct

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4
Q

Lamarckism

A

Jean baptiste lamarck argued that organisms could acquire CHARACTERISTICS in their lifetime to ADAPT to their environments

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5
Q

Evolution definition

A

Cumulative change in GENETIC COMPOSITION of a population over time

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6
Q

Darwins 3 major propositions

A

1.Species aren’t immutable(unchangeable)
2.Descent with modification
3. Natural selection

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7
Q

1 of 3 of Darwin’s propositions: Descent with modification

A

Related species sharing a common ancestor will DIVERGE from one another gradually over time

Based on idea that trait inheritance occurs with modification through many generations

E.g. Homologous structures

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7
Q

1 of 3 of Darwin’s propositions: Species aren’t immutable

A

Populations show PHENOTYPIC variations within species and can change over time
E.g. Snapdragon colors and Flinch beak size

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8
Q

1 of 3 of Darwin’s propositions: Natural selection

A

Some individuals have an advantage and are more like to SURVIVE and reproduce passing down the PHENOTYPE
E.g. Adaptation of ground flinches for different food sources(seeds)

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9
Q

Speciation

A
  • Evolutionary consequence of Reproductive isolation
  • Lineages separate and are UNABLE TO INTERBREED despite common ancestor due to DIFFERENT SELECTIVE PRESSURES causing diversion
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10
Q

3 factors determining how close species are related to each other

A
  1. Genetic information
  2. Fossil record
  3. Morphological traits
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11
Q

Phylogeny

A

Shows the evolutionary relationship

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12
Q

Macroevolution

A

Explains evolutionary changes among large taxonomic groups above the species level including the:
ORIGIN EXTINCTION DIVERSIFICSTION of species over a long period of time

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13
Q

can Morphological traits be used to build phylogenies?

A

Yes

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14
Q

Monophyly, Polyphyly, Paraphyly are subgroups of what?

A

The Phylogenetic tree

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15
Q
A

Includes Common ancestor + ALL descendants

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16
Q

Polyphyletic group

A

Does NOT include the Common ancestor

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17
Q

Paraphyletic group

A

Includes COMMON ANCESTOR but not all the descendants

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18
Q

Taxon

A

Refers to the entities on the tree(e.g. humans and gorillas)

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19
Q

5 agents of evolutionary change

A
  1. Recombination
    2 Gene flow
  2. Natural selection
  3. Mutation
  4. Genetic drift
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20
Q

2 sources of DNA damage

A
  1. Exogenous(UV, Chemical mutagens)
  2. Endogenous(Reactive O2 species, hydrolysis, alkylation, endonucleases)
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21
Q

Low and High rate mutation drawbacks

A

High rate: Too many functional elements disrupted less fit organism
Low rate: No adaptive evolution

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22
Q

Population definition

A

Group of individuals that share GENETIC INFORMATION + from the same species

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23
Q

Gene pool definition

A

SUM of GENETIC INFORMATION(genetic composition) that is carried in the population

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24
Q

Genetic drift

A

Random sampling of alleles across generations
It is more influential in small populations

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25
Q

Stochastic changes(Type of Genetic drift)

A

Allele frequency changes from one generation to the next.
It REMOVES Variation, does NOT ADD

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26
Q

Microevolution

A
  • Evolution within species that can be observed DIRECTLY acting upon natural populations
  • Microevolutionary process can be INFLUENCED by agents of change
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27
Q

Adaptation vs Natural selection

A

Adaptation:
- Refers to a TRAIT
- Advantageous mutations can contribute to trait’s adaptiveness
Natural selection:
- Is a process
- Acts to select the Advantageous and deleterious mutations

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28
Q

Artificial selection

A

Manipulating via selective breeding

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29
Q

Plant populations(Non-randon mating)

A
  • Most plants produce Male and Female gametes to MATE with themselves
  • Plants with flowers have TIME POLYMORPHISMS(some plants flower earlier)
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30
Q

Gene flow

A
  • Interbreeding occurs between 2 populations sharing GENETIC MATERIAL with distinct GENETIC COMPOSITION.
  • Involves dispersal of individuals across space + successful breeding in new location
  • Barriers reduce gene flow

E.g. pollen to new location or people moving countries

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31
Q

Pollen gene flow

A

Pollen contributes to gene flow in plants.
Flower color is determined by MULTIPLE GENEs

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32
Q

Impact of gene flow on gene pool depends on…

A
  1. Genetic differences between population
  2. Level of migration. movement or hybridization
    (look at notes for further info)
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33
Q

5 Real deviations from Hardy-Weinberg

A

1 Migration occurs
2 Dna mutates
3 Population size is finite
4 Non-random mating
5 Fitness varies across the population

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34
Q

Speciation

A

Evolutionary process that forms new species through reproductive isolation causing 1 evolutionary lineage to split into 2 or more lineages of distinct from all other species

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35
Q

Allopatric speciations

A

Ancestral population divided by PHYSICAL BARRIER preventing reproduction and gene flow

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36
Q

Requirements of speciation

A

Genetic change to accumulate and differ between populations(both allopatric and sympatric)

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36
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Ancestral population divided WITHOUT Geographic barriers due to
Bahevours or shape flowers

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36
Q

Fixed

A

All individuals in population/species are homozygous for that version

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36
Q

What are the 2 types of Reproductive Barriers?

A

Prezygotic
Postzygotic

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37
Q

What do reproductive barrier do?

A

Enables SPECIATION and PREVENT Gene flow

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38
Q

Prezygotic isolation

A

Barriers to reproduction BEFORE the union of nuclei

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39
Q

Postzygotic isolation

A

Barriers to reproduction AFTER union of nuclei

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40
Q

Types of Prezygotic isolation

A
  1. Geographic isolation
    - Gene flow can be prevented by islands
  2. Mechanical
    - Some pollinators are specific to each flower differing in shape
  3. Behavioral
    - COURTSHIP in birds , calling in different frequencies
  4. Mating time differences
    - Corals release gametes that survive for short periods of time and spawn at different times
  5. Ecological differences
    - Cichild fish evolved to live in different ecological NICHES in Lake Mawli
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41
Q

Types of postzygotic isolation

A
  1. Fertilized egg/Offspring inviable
    - Hybrid embryos formed by RANA species of frog are defective
  2. Interbreeding
    offspring can be viable but STERILE
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42
Q

Chromosomal rearrangements

A

Promotes speciation
sometimes 3 chromosomes(A, B, C can) can be differently paired, e.g. A+B or B+C individually becoming fixed and normal pairing of the 2 groups CANNOT OCCUR in hybirds

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43
Q

Species

A

Groups of actually or potential interbreeding natural populations that produce FERTILE offspring

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44
Q

Fertile hybird

A

Hybrids from parents interbreeding and that can produce offspring.

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45
Q

Adaptive Introgression

A

Fertile hybrids resulting from transferring pre-adapted traits from 1 species to another

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46
Q

Use of fertile hybrids

A

To breed endangered species like florida panther with texas pumas,.

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47
Q

Example of adaptive introgression

A

Humans x Neanderthals leading to inheritance of beneficial variation from related species accelerating adaptation and survival in new environment

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48
Q

Incomplete lineage sorting hypothesis

A

Alleles predating the speciation of neanderthals and humans, by chance or drift, these alleles were LOST in African humansBa

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49
Q

Negative frequency dependent selection

A

PREVENTS 1 phenotype dominating the others and becoming “FIXED”
Occur when RARE phenotypes have higher fitness than common ones, they will have strong selective advantage preventing from going extinct.

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50
Q

Example of Negative frequency dependent selection

A

Lizard males displaying behavioral variations
- Orange males: Aggressive, defend territory
- Blue males: Less aggressive with small territories but GUARD females
- Yellow males: Similar coloration to females and sneak around

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51
Q

What kind of model system is Negative frequency dependent selection

A

CYCLIC
It fails to reach Evolutionary Stable State with consistent phenotypes, the balancing selection occurs to maintain allele frequencies in population

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52
Q

Heterozygote advantage + name a example

A

Heterozygous individuals have fitness advantage against homozygous individuals.
Example: Sickle cell anemia heterozygous will be invulnerable against Malaria

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53
Q

Relative fitness(w) definition

A

Describes the success of other genotypes in the population and ranges from 0-1.0

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54
Q

Intersexual selection definition

A

Mate choice, choosing mates on certain traits
e.g. Females mating with Male birds with the longest male

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55
Q

Intrasexual selection

A

Individual competition of the SAME sex competing for access to mates including:
- Physical combat
- Displays of strength

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55
Q

Intersexual selection mechanisms

A

One sex(mostly females) hold preferences for specific traits
Traits that are costly to bear indicate the QUALITY of the male
These traits may become exaggerated and will be balanced by sexual and natural selection

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56
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

Sexes of the same species exhibit different morphological characteristics

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57
Q

What traits enhance competitiveness(2)

A

Size and Behaviors

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58
Q

What are used to avoid costly fights in intrasexual selection

A

Rituals like Roaring and intimidation tactics(which sometimes are bluffs like hollow large claws)

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59
Q

What are some Sexual Conflicts between the sexes?

A
  • Whether mating occurs
  • Female mating frequency
  • If sperm is used in fertilization
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60
Q

What do the 2 sexes do to resolve conflict? Give an example

A

Evolve traits to resolve conflicts in their favor

Pantry moth males with GIANT SPERM PACKETS trick females into thing that she is full so she doesn’t mate with anyone else. Laying eggs for his sperm.
The females evolved Genital teeth piercing the SPERMATOPHORES undoing the manipulation

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61
Q

Red queen hypothesis + example

A

Species must constantly adapt & evolve to survive while pitted against ever evolving species

Pathogens evolve to ether host and hosts evolve to avoid pathogens

Predator and prey interactions like cheetahs and springboks

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61
Q

What cycle does coevolution create

A

A continuous cycle of ADAPTATIONS & COUNTER ADAPTATIONS.
Each species exert a selective pressure on each the other
Driving force in evolution of species shapes behaviours, physiology and ecological relationships

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62
Q

Coevolution

A

Process of 2 or more interacting species(could be the same species) affect each other’s EVOLUTION through natural selection
They reciprocally affect each other’s evolution through the process of natural selection exerting selective pressure on each other.

Adaptation selects for counter adaptation which selects for adaption.

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63
Q

3 types of coevolution

A
  1. Host-parasite interaction
  2. Mutualistic coevolution(plant-pollinator)
  3. Plant-herbivore interactions
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64
Q

Maladaptive traits

A

Traits that harm survival

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65
Q

Ornament vs Armament traits

A

Ornaments:
Used to attract mates, animals may shake, lengthen or spread their ornaments.
Armaments:
“weapons” that have evolved for intrasexual selection for access to opposite sexes.

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66
Q

5 Antagonistic evolution

A
  1. Predator-prey
  2. Plant herbivore
  3. Host-parasite
  4. Brood parasitism
  5. Plant height
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67
Q

Plant herbivore interactions(Caterpillars and milkweed)

A

E.g. Monarch butterflies EXCLUSIVELY lay eggs on Milkweed species for the hatched caterpillars to eat.
There’s selective pressure on Milkweed to reduce herbivory.

  1. The milkweed evolved HAIRY LEAVES but caterpillars shave the hair before eating leaves.
  2. Milkweeds then evolve STICKY LATEX but caterpillars then attack leaf veins to turn off wax tap
  3. Milkweed evolved TOXIC CHEMICALS but caterpillars evolved ability to use that that chemical for their own defenses
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68
Q

Host-parasite interactions

A

Myxoma virus
Virulence level must suit rabbit: Killing too quickly reduces transmission
Immune evasion
Rabbit
Increased genetic resistance to virus
More effective immune response

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69
Q

4 Mutualistic Coevolution

A
  1. Plant pollinator
  2. Cleaning
  3. Endosymbiotic
  4. Defensive
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70
Q

plant pollinator interactions

A

Plants evolve NECTAR to entrance and reward insects to visit & sprinkle their pollen to other plants

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71
Q

Homologous characters

A

Characters derived from a COMMON ANCESTOR
e.g. bones in birds and bats
The sequence of DNA from species of 2 species share some similarities

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72
Q

Interspecies hybrid allow Genetic analysis

A

Humans can intervene and hand pollinate 2 flowers that have been reproductively isolated.
Example 1 : YUP(Yellow upper Petal) gene
- Illustrates how genetics can be used to REDUCE adaptive traits into their component Genetic Loci.
- Identifies speciation genes(speciation involved in speciation)
- Allows to understand how traits can evolve via mutations
Example 2: melanism of peppered moth
Industrial revolution led to darker trees which meant that darker moths better at camouflaging(selective advantage)
- The gene CORTEX, large insertion caused by TRANSPOSABLE DEMENT HOPPING into the 1st intron
- DNA divergence estimate gene arose -1819
Example 3: Vinegar fly
- Allelic series of Cyp6g1 features transposable elements and gene duplications
- insecticide resistance risen through GENE DUPLICIATION & TRANSPOSABLE

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73
Q

How do population structures arise

A

Refers to distribution of individuals

  • arise when Demographic processes produce systemic differences in allele frequencies between subsets of a larger population
  • May arise from ISOLATION or NON RANDOM MATING
  • Population structure influenced by ALL AGENTS OF CHANGE
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74
Q

Location of Gaseous exchange in fungi, unicellular organisms and plants&animals

A

Cell membrane(Cell wall) - unicellular organisms
Body wall - fungi
Specialized respiratory structures - plants & animals

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75
Q

Features of Gas exchange

A
  • High SA/volume ratio
  • Partial permeability allowing selected materials to diffuse in
  • Very thin for short diffusion pathway
  • Movement of external medium(AIR)&internal medium(blood) maintain concentration gradient
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76
Q

Components of Fick’s law

A

(SA x Partial pressure x Diffusion coefficient) / Diffusion distance

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77
Q

2 types of stomata

A

Kidney shaped and Dumbbell shaped

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78
Q

Kidney shaped stomata

A

Formed on leaf epidermis without predetermined location

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79
Q
A
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80
Q

Dumbbell shaped stomata

A
  • Next to subsidiary cells
  • Collectively are STOMATAL COMPLEX constrained at the leaf base with STOMATAL PORES formed adjacent to leaf veins
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81
Q

Factors affecting stomatal density

A
  • Temp
  • Humidity
  • Partial pressure of gases
  • Different leaf type or places on plant as conditions change throughout growth
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82
Q

Do plants have specialized network of gas exchange?

A

Each area of the plant takes care of its own gas exchange needs.

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83
Q

Where can the stomata be found on?

A
  • Stems
  • Petals
  • Leaves(highest leaves, high metabolism + photosynthetically active) Has SA/V ratio
  • Roots, root hairs can exchange gas, H2O, nutrients
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84
Q

Other features enabling efficient gas exchange

A

AERENCHYMA
- Living cells have part of membrane exposed to air(loosely packed)
- Leads to rapid diffusion in intracellular area of plant
- Relies on PRESSURE gradients to drive gases from High to low pressure.
- Cells live close to surface reducing the distance gas has to travel inside plant
- Forms when cells separate or collapse
LENTICIL
- Small pores allowing gases in&out to interact with living tissue
- Found in woody stems and shoots(photosynthesize less)

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85
Q

Characteristics of wetland plants

A

Due to LESS gas exachange in air
Air enters through COMMON REEDS from broken stems or dead plants connected by underwater structures(RHIZOMES) that grow horizontally below the soil

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86
Q

Which type of animals avoid the need to specialized structures in moist and aquatic environments

A

Animals with THIN Tissues rely on O2 diffusion. Long thin bodies
Co opt other structures with large SA to aid in gas exchange(Feeding tentacles)
E.g. Annelid, Nematode, Platyhelminth

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86
Q

Gas exchange in fungi

A
  • Lack specialized gas exchange structures
  • Gas exchange requirements low -> Dormant for long periods
    Yeast(Unicellular):
    Switch between Aerobic & Anaerobic baed on O2 availability
    Multicellular:
    Takes place via Large branching network of MYCELIUM possessing microscopic HYPHAE extending into small crevices in soil to interact with air pocket
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87
Q

Ventilation

A

Gases moved across gas exchange surface via BODY MOVEMENTS or movement of respiratory structure to optimize Pressure gradient + Increases rate of diffusion across gas exchange surface

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88
Q

Circulation

A

Gas moves from To & FROM has exchange surface and body tissues.
Can occur via dissolution into a circulatory fluid(Blood) or DIRECTLY via network of branching tubes

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89
Q

Terrestrial environments

A

O2 availability high but h2o loss is problematic

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90
Q

Gas exchange structure characteristics

A
  • Respiratory surfaces stay MOIST
  • Terrestrial animals have INTERNAL gas exchange structures
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91
Q

Gas exchange for insects

A

Gas exchange system:
- Utilizes network of tubes called TRACHEA
- Trachea allows DIRECT O2 delivery to tissues & cells
Air enters body through SPIRACLES(small openings)
located on sides of Thorax&Abdomen into the
Tracheoles -> individuals
-Insects can CLOSE spiracles to prevent H2O loss
- Contract abdomens to VENTILATE, sucking in air + O2 inside the body
Large SA allows O2 down & CO2 up of cells

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92
Q

Gas exchange in Rabbits

A
  • Vascularized lungs
  • Air -> Nose/month -> Branching into Bronchi -> Bronchioles(for animals with high O2 requirement) -> Alveoli
  • Thin lung wall + surrounded by capillaries to transport O2 in & CO2 out of body tissues
  • Lungs branching network = High SA for gas exchange.
  • Kept moist by surfactants secreted by pneumocyte cells
93
Q

What do surfactants do

A

Reduce surface tension of lung aiding in diffusion of gases

94
Q

Gas exchange in birds

A
  • High rate of gas exchange due to High oxygen requirements; increases Dramatically during flight
  • Unidirectional flow of air ventilated by Air sacs pumping air to & from lungs in specific orders
    -> Fresh air passes over gas exchange surfaces during inhalation & exhalation(constant supply of fresh air)
95
Q

Parabronchi

A
  • Found in birds
  • Increase SA interacting directly with large capillary network to exchange gases transporting them around the body.
  • Lungs DONT move
96
Q

Gas exchange in Aquatic species

A

Made of individual filaments covered in Lamellae to increase SA for gas exchange
O2 diffuse from H2O -> blood in the gill capillaries
CO2 diffuses from body-> H2O to be expelled

97
Q

Why do internal gills employ countercurrent exchange mechanism?

A

Internal gills employ countercurrent exchange mechanism :
where blood& H2O flow in OPPOSITE directions maintaining conc gradient to maximize O2 uptake and CO2 removal

98
Q

Autotroph vs Heterotroph

A

Autotroph:
Self produces majority of nutrients required for cellular respiration
Heterotroph:
Obtains majority of nutrients from other organisms

99
Q

Autotrophic adaptations(plant, algae, photosynthetic bacteria)

A

Capture sunlight(chemical energy) & fix it into organic compounds in specialized organelles(chloroplast)
-> calvin cycle converts CO2 to Glucose

100
Q

A type of heterotrophic
How do hydrothermal vents(Autotroph) convert carbon to food?

A

Oxidation of inorganic nutrients via CHEMOSYNTHESIS by bacteria in host

101
Q

Heterotrophic adaptations

A

adaptations to collect and capture food:
- Modified mouth/limbs(sucking, chewing, siphoning, sharper claws, increased mobility)
adaptations for chemical digestion:
- Fungi: break down decaying matter via secretion
- Plant parasite: Invade vascular tissue of plants uptaking key nutrients + transferring RNA & pathogens
- Carnivorous plants - Chemical or physical signal to attract their prey + digestive enzymes

102
Q

Where does nitrogen fixation occur

A

Plant nodules(specialized root structures) where rhizobia fix N2 & receive nutrients

103
Q

Rhizobacteria

A

Live in association with plant Roots. Plants give them nutrients, in turn they:
Produce Antibiotics
Absorb unwanted chemicals form soil
Facilitate acquisition of essential nutrients

104
Q

Mycorrhizae fungi and plants relationship

A

Mutually beneficial, the Mycorrhizae receive nutrients from the plant and in turn:
- access nutrients(phosphate, cu, zn) in soil normally unavailable for plants
- Acts as physical barrier against pathogens and produce antibiotics

105
Q

How do plants excrete metabolic waste

A

Via transpiration from leaf stomata

106
Q

Lenticels

A

Permanently open pores on stems and bark provide another pathway to remove H2O gases and gases

107
Q

Explain the movement of stomata and how it affects metabolic waste during the day and night

A

Day - Stomatal transpiration balances the H2O in plants
Night - Stomata closed, excess H2O and minerals in tissues, there’s continued absorption of water from soil due to ROOT PRESSURE

108
Q

Guttation

A

Some plants excrete excess H2O & minerals in small droplets of Xylem Sap exuded from leaf margins

Occurs when Root pressure > Transpiration, forcing out xylem sap through secretory cells in leaf epidermis called HYDATHODES(evolved stomata)

109
Q

What are the 2 destinations of amino acids in plants

A
  1. UREA as nitrogenous waste
  2. May be reused for protein synthesis for protein synthesis ->Growth & Development
110
Q

Where to plants store unwanted metabolic byproducts?

A

Cell’s vacuoles in the form of AA, Salts, H2O.
They can buildup in tissue which is later SHED from plant as Fruit, leaves, bark

111
Q

Macro nutrients(4) for plants

A

Large amounts of it required
Carbon(from atmosphere): Proteins, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates
Nitrogen(from atmosphere): Nucleic acid, Proteins, Chlorophyll
Potassium: Gas exchange regulation

112
Q

Micronutrients for plants

A

Cl
Fe - Mitochondria & Chloroplast cofactor
Mn
Cofactors* = substances aiding enzyme function

113
Q

What do animals digest Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, what is:
Glycogen
Disaccharide
Proteins
Lipids
broken down to?

A

Glycogen: Glucose broken down to Pyruvate + ATP + NADH
Disaccharide: Fructose + Glucose
Proteins: AA gets deaminated then use to glycolysis for citric acid. AA can be used to make new proteins
Lipids(triglycerides) -> Glycerol+fatty acids -> Acetyl CoA via Beta-oxidation-> Citric acid cycle

114
Q

Heterotrophic fungi

A

Detritivores or Decomposers recycling nutrients into soil or directly to plants. Getting carbon compounds from non living organic substrates or living material via nutrient absorption across CELL wall.

115
Q

Multicellular fungi vs Unicellular yeast food sources

A

Multicellular fungi: Hyphae grows into food source
Unicellular yeast: Become colonial to take advantage of food source

116
Q

Fungi digestion for macromolecules+insoluble polymers and small molecules

A

Small molecules(sugars, AA)
accumulate in watery film surrounding the hyphae or yeast diffusing through the cell wall.

Macromolecules + insoluble Polymers(protein, glycogen, starch, cellulose)
undergo preliminary digestion then absorbed

117
Q

How are macromolecules+ insoluble Polymers digested

A

Specific enzymes in exudate secreted by HYPHAE or YEAST facilitates breakdown of extracellular substrates and diffusion of products for digestion

118
Q

Is the digestive system highly vascularized?

A

Yes

119
Q

Foregut

A

Intake+Storage of food.
Initial stages of chemical and mechanical digestion

120
Q

Midgut and Hindgut

A

Mostly chemical digestion +absorption of nutrients prior to defecation or evacuation of waste products

121
Q

Herbivore gut adaptations

A
  • Difficult + low energy food source
  • Mechanical digestion:
    1. Mouth have teeth that can tear, crush grind, coarse plant matter
    2. Stomach/crop: Very muscular so food can be squeezed and churned
122
Q

Ruminants: Foregut ferments 4 compartments are

A

Rumen
Reticulum
Omasum
Abomasum

123
Q

Rumination process

A

Food regurgitated from Rumen to Mouth for mechanical digestion passed through different stomach regions where plant matter is fermented by microbes

124
Q

Hindgut fermenters

A

Somple stomach relying on LONG hindgut for CAECUM’s microbes to ferment plant food

125
Q

Carnivore adaptations

A
  • Mouth adapted to capture prey & tear flesh
  • Rely more on chemical digestion(salivary enzymes + acidic stomach)
  • Shorter and less complex
  • Storage of food in digestive tract not required
  • Lipid broken down in midgut via bile secreted
126
Q

Nitrogenous waste

A

Ammonia must be converted either into UREA or URIC acid

127
Q

How do aquatic animals release nitrogenous waste?

A

Release as NH3 into environment
NOT energy intensive as NH3 diluted to tolerable levels

128
Q

How do Birds/reptiles/insects release nitrogenous waste?

A

Uric acid excreted in solid form and Most energy intensive

129
Q

How do mammals and adult amphibians release nitrogenous waste?

A

Convert to urea(less toxic) requiring less H2O for removal and requires energy

130
Q

Aquatic mollusks metanephridia

A

Type of excretory gland drains nitrogenous waste from sacs surrounding heart down into mantle cavity to convert it to NH3 rich urine

131
Q

Which organisms excrete nitrogenous waste from gills

A

Fish Mollusks and crustaceans

132
Q

Process of kidneys(3 steps)

A

1: Filtration
2: Reabsorption + secretion
3: Excretion

133
Q

Explain kidney’s filtration process

A

Blood interacts with tubules via GLOMERULUS(collects larger molecules like blood and proteins). H2O + ions filtered into the tubule capsule/bowman’s capsule(collects AA, salt, glucose)

134
Q

Explain kidney’s Reabsorption and secretion process

A

Blood flow through another network of capillaries that interact with Renal tubules to reabsorb and secrete solutes.
Altering composition of fluid in tubules, ION concentration increases as it flows towards COLLECTING DUCTS of kidney before excretion

135
Q

Explain kidney’s excretion

A

Interaction between blood vessels and renal tubules in nephron ELONGATED & FOLDED to increase SA:V + diffusion rates

136
Q

Freshwater vs Saltwater fish nephron

A

H2O balance for different fishes are different
Freshwater fish:
LARGER filtration to dilute urine in larger volumes
Osmotic conc. of bodies is higher than surroundings

137
Q

Insects

A

Cells of tubules actively transport uric acid K+, Na+ from extracellular fluid into the tubules
High conc. of solutes in tubules causes H2O to flow osmotically flushing tubule content towards the gut

Epithelial cells of hindgut and rectum actively transport Na and K ions from gut back into extracellular fluid

Transport of salts create osmotic gradient pulling H2O out of rectal content

As uric acid conc. increases, it forms colloidal suspension freeing even more H2O to be absorbed

138
Q

Loop of henle

A

Found in MAMMALS
Elongates of proximal tubule functions as counter-current multiplier changing conc gradient of the surrounding tissues
Extends into MEDULLA region of kidney

139
Q

Signal

A

Acts/strategies INFLUENCING behavior of other organism(receivers).
They’ve evolved specifically because of the effect they have on intended receivers
E.g. Bioluminescence in elateroid beetles used as warning signals

140
Q

Cues

A

Incidental source of info that may influence behavior of receiver despite not having evolved under selection

141
Q

What are 6 modalities to discern cues from environment(CEMPMA)

A

Chemical
Electrical
Mechanical
Photic
Magnetic
Auditory

142
Q

Chemoreceptors and its 2 pathways of activation

A

Chemical sensitive protein receptors activated through physical interaction with specific types of molecules
1. Direct activation
Opens channel in cell membrane
2. Indirect activation
Causes activation of another protein carrying the signal to open another protein channel

143
Q

Thermoreceptor

A

Modified chemical sensors that change shape in response to temperature enabling passage of ions across membrane

144
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Motion receptors
Motion sensitive proteins respond to mechanical signals(movement, strech, vibration) causing channels to open & ions to pass through

145
Q

Photoreceptor

A

Light receptors
Responds to SPECIFIC WAVELENGTHS of light when a PHOTON bumps into photoreceptor protein. Protein absorbs energy & temporarily changes shape

146
Q

What is the role of photoreceptor in plants

A

Mediate plant’s response to light(UV->IR) as it contains the protein component bounded CHROMOPHORE(light absorbing pigment)

147
Q

Chromophore

A

Chromophore in a specific photoreceptor absorbs specific light wavelength -> structural changes in receptor.
Activation of photoreceptor triggers signalling cascade within plant cell -> gene expresssion affecting plant growth & morphology

148
Q

Phytochrome photoreceptors 2 forms

A

Pr(Inactive):
Absorbs red light
Pfr(Active):
Absorbs FAR red light

149
Q

Explain biological clocks how they help plants sense environmental variations

A

changes in light level(environmental variations) to follow their circadian rhythms via PHYTOCHROME SYSTEM:
Detect changes in season by measuring photoperiod(day length)
- Pfr is LOW = Winter. Pfr HIGH = Summer

150
Q

Gravity tropism

A

Plant’s roots grow towards gravity and shoots towards light
Roots = Positive gravitropism
Shoots = Negative gravitropism

151
Q

What is the role of statocytes in gravity tropism

A

Statocytes are gravity sensing cells which have AMYLOPLASTS and STATOLITHS(both dense starch filled organelles) that settle downward in response to gravity stimulating growth on upper side so it curves downwards

152
Q

Thigmotropism

A

Directional growth in response to touch growing towards or away objects. Contact stimulates elongation on non contact side and continues
Shoot - positive thigmotropism
Root negative thigmotropism

153
Q

Explain process of smell and how it interacts the nasal cavity

A

Chemoreceptors embedded in layers of epithelial tissue in uppermost region of nasal cavity have odorant molecules bind to olfactory receptors sending ingo to nerves within the olfactory bulb when then -> brain for processing

154
Q

Describe olfactory sensitivity

A

Discrimination of more odorant’s than olfactory receptors, odorant molecules can be complex each region may bind to different receptor proteins activating unique combination of nerve clusters(GLOMERULI)

155
Q

What are pheromones

A

Chemical signal used for communication among conspecifics triggering behavioral responses in other individuals

156
Q

Examples of uses for pheromones

A

Attract mates
Communicate alarm signals
Mock goof traits
Define territories

157
Q

How to insects and animals each detect pheromones

A

Insect: Antennae
Mammals : Olfactory system

158
Q

How do animals sense light?

A

Photoreceptors in eyes

159
Q

How do Jelly fish sense light

A

through RHOPALIA(Eyespots): Numerous photoreceptors bundled into sensory structure(neurons+gravity cells+photoreceptors)

160
Q

Heterotroph movement in the ocean

A

They move deeper H2O at day -> surface at night

161
Q

Role of light in invertebrates

A

Circadian rhythm(biological clock) control

162
Q

explain the mechanisms of SCN and Retinohypothalamic nerves in invertebrates

A

SUPER CHIASMATIC NUCLEUS(SCN) sits within hypothalamus where nerves of eye crossover . SCN recieves info from eyes via Retinohypothalamic nerve tract stimulating release of specific neurotransmitters and peptides to interact with the brain and control physiological processes like sleep digestion thermoregulation.

163
Q

The 3 levels of Soma-sensory system (Receptor level, Circuit level, perceptual level)

A

Receptor:
Converts stimulus -> Electrical signal -> graded potential. Once graded potential reaches threshold, nerve impulse is generated
Circuit:
Impulse reaches CNS through ascending pathways. Most reach PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY area of cerebral cortex while proprioceptive impulse processed in cerebellum
Perceptual:
Sensory signal interpreted by CNS at perceptual level and ONLY impulses processed at cerebral cortex are consciously perceived

164
Q

Homeostasis

A

Body maintains stable internal conditions in response to changing external environments

165
Q

Set point

A

Physiological range of variable(body temp = 37C)

166
Q

Q10 temperature coefficient

A

Measuring of temperature sensitivity based on chemical reactions

Q10 = 1 Not temperature sensitive
Q10 = 2 Doubles with 10C intervals
Q10 = 3 Triples with 10C intervals

167
Q

C4 vs C3 & CAM plants optimal temperatures

A

C4’s optimal temperature range is narrower BUT has higher photosynthesis rate at peak

168
Q

Sources of heat transfer

A

Radiation from sun, ground, sky, metabolism
Evaporation

169
Q

Thermoregulation(- feedback)

A

Control of internal body temperature by physiological or behavioral means

170
Q

How do Vertebrates perceive change in temp

A

Peripheral nervous system detects change in temp via skin thermoreceptors sending info -? CNS -> brain hypothalamus eliciting VASODILATION & VASOCONSTRICTION or SHIVERING

170
Q

How do roundworms perceive change in temp

A

Thermoreceptors synapse directly with interneurons that connect to motor neurons eliciting thermotatic response enabling them to move to more suitable microclimates

171
Q

Endotherm

A

Produce body heat themselves via metabolism

172
Q

Ectotherm

A

Rely on external sources of heat(sun)

173
Q

Homeotherms

A

Maintain stable body temperature

174
Q

Heterotherms

A

Fluctuating body temperature(regularly or specific stages of life)

175
Q

Toper/hibernation uses

A

Use d to survive in cold conditions by dropping down body temp to surrounding temp = Heterothermic
+ Endotherm animals
They use Endogenous heat to warm up from hibernation and maintain stable body temp with conditions are more favorable

176
Q

Behavioral thermoregulation

A

Adjusting activities or moving to different microclimate to adjust rate of HEAT GAIN & LOSS with environment
Mostly used by Ectotherms

177
Q

Thermoneutral zone is

A

Cost of maintaing body temp is minimized

178
Q

Thermal conductance

A

rate of heat exchange between animal and environment determind by:
Size
Shape
Thickness on insulation(fur, scale, fat)

179
Q

When are metabolic rates most comparable between species

A
  • comparable conditions
    Metabolic rates most comparable between species when there are in the BASAL METABOLIC RATE: heat loss = heat gain.
  • Same physiological state(sleeping≠active)
  • Endo and ectotherms have fundamentally different rates of metabolism
180
Q

When are animals in a Basal metabolic rate

A

Resting
Post absorptive(no digesting or feeding)
Non reproductive state
Temperature(for ectotherms)

181
Q

Relationship of metabolic rate and size

A

More cells = more respiration(metabolic rate)

182
Q

Klieber’s law

A

body mass ^ 0.75

183
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

Self reproducing
genetically identical offspring
NO partner required
Time and energy efficient
Rapid population growth

184
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

New organisms produced via combination of genetic information from 2 different individuals
Genetic variation
Time and energy intensive
slower population growth

185
Q

Fission

A

process of seperating into equally sized daughter cells

186
Q

Binary fission vs Multiple fission

A

Binary fission:
- SEPARATES into equally sized offspring
- initial enlargement of parent cell and duplication of nucleus before division
Multiple fission:
Reproduction results in numerous offspring:
- common in protista(multinucleate)
- nucleus divides into many parts then cytoplasm forms around nuclei and organism separates
- will divide into individual cells under specific environmental conditions

187
Q

Budding

A
  • found in ALL domain and kingdom of life
  • small outgrowth on parent cell or organism forming on specific location in most species.
  • Breaks off to form new smaller daugher cell(parent -> 2 unequal parts)
188
Q

Vegetative propogation(Fragmentation for plants)

A
  • Due to sedentary lifestyle, the movement of offspring away from parent enables population persistence while reducing competition for resources
  • Extension of root system moves away to allow daughter plant to grow
189
Q

Fragmentation

A
  • E.g. starfish
  • Parent organism breaks into fragments, each capable of growing indeendetly into a new organism (mature+fully formed+identical parent)
  • Unintentional or intentional, lost fragment may be regenerated
190
Q

Apomixis

A
  • Production of seeds WITHOUT pollination or fertilization
  • overcomes sterility
191
Q

Grafting

A

Combining favorable traits from differing varieties
e.g. upper of plant A + Lower Plant B = graft

192
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

Occurs in multicellular plants and animals via development of offspring from an unfertilized or self fertilized gamete
These organisms can also sexually reproduce
e,g, aphids
Sexual in autumn - lay eggs with male
Asexual in summer - food abundant

193
Q

Explain the reproduction of fungi with respect to haploid and diploid

A
  • HAPLOID reproduces asexually
  • Sexual reproduction involves FUSION of bodies to become 1, this is called PLASMOGAMY, creating a DIKARYOTIC individual as the cytoplasm fuses.
  • This phase can last BEFORE genetic sex or fertilization occurs.
  • Nuclei fuse to form a diploid individual(KARYOGAMY) then Meiosis
194
Q

Explain reproduction in plants

A
  • Meiosis produces spores -> Develop into adult WITHOUT fusion -> undergo mitosis forming multicellular haploid gametophyte to produce gametes.
  • Gametes from 2 different gemetophyte parents FUSE -> diploid zygote -> grows into diploid sporophyte
195
Q

4 floral organs and their functions

A

Sepals:
Encase & protect flower buds(green)
Petals:
Protect other flower structures(brightly colored)
Stamen & carpel:
Fertile flower organs produce spores(Sperm & Egg)

196
Q

Plant pollinatino vs fertilization

A

Pollination = Anther ->stigma
Fertilization = Ovules->Seeds->fruits

197
Q

Monoecious

A
  • Has BOTH male and female reproductive organs
  • Efficient + every parent(not just 50%) can produce offspring
  • Genetic variation
    Reaps benefits of both sexual and asexual reproduction
198
Q

Dioecious

A

Ensures genetic variability reducing risk of self fertilization
Formed by gradual investment of one of the sexes(females in humans)

199
Q

Differentiate Isogamy and Anisogamy in dioecious organisms

A

Isogamy:
Gametes SAME SIZE, equal investment
Anisogamy:
1 gamete larger, 1 parent invests more

200
Q

What are the 3 phases of the immune system

A
  1. Recognition
  2. Activation
  3. Pathogen destruction
201
Q

Explain recognition phase of immune system

A

Specific immune receptors located at cell surface detect pathogens relying on their pathogen’s general features known as MAMPs or PAMPs = Microbe/pathogen associated molecular patterns

202
Q

Explain Activation phase of immune system

A
  • Cells and molecules mobilized to fight invader
  • Binding of the MAMP to pattern recognition receptors activates initial immune response:
    1. secretion of antimicrobial peptides(DEFENSINS) break apart pathogen cell membrane
    2. Produces cytokines recognized by immune system signalling the infection to activate additional responses to immune system
203
Q

Explain pathogen destruction phase of immune system

A

Molecules+Mobilized cells destroys microorganisms
Defensin(in both plants&animals):
disrupt cell membrane resulting in cell lysis and death
Macrophages:
Engulfing and digesting pathogens via phagocytosis. It also activates adaptive immune system to recruit additional immune cells to site of injury/threat

204
Q

What is the effector stage

A

Kills both affected cell and pathogen along with it = regulated cell death

205
Q

Innate vs acquired immunity

A

Innate:
Rapid response
barrier defesnses
Internal defenses

Acquired
Slower response
Humoral response
Cell mediated response

206
Q

How do plant’s physical barriers help with their innate immunity

A
  • Waxy cuticle(with hair and thorns) protect epidermis from damage and invasion by unwanted microorganism
  • Leaves composed of cutin polymer matrix and waxes produced and secreted by epidermal cells
207
Q

Plant’s innate immunity responses

A
  • Closes stomata
  • Antimicrobial chemicals
    Strengthened cell wall
  • Plants evolved resistant proteins that detect effector proteins which normally perturb plants immune system
  • Programmed cell death may occur to limit pathogen spread
208
Q

Systemic acquired resistance:

A

Long term defense against pathogens in areas distant from infection site.
Example:

209
Q

Animal innate immune response

A

Respiratory tract:
Protected by CILIA _ produces mucus expelling out of body once trapped via coughs. Mucus also has antimicrobial properties
Gut:
low pH creating hostile environment for invaders
Eyelids:
Flaps of skin covering the eye or a membrane covering the eye(snake)

210
Q

What does inflammation do?

A
  • ISOLATES damaged area to stop spread of damage
  • Recruits cells&molecules to damaged location to kill potential invaders + promote healing
211
Q

Mast cell(in invertebrates)

A
  • Secrete cytokines
  • Promote blood flow to infected area
  • Increase permeability of blood vessels + generate encapsulation/clotting response to surround site
212
Q

Cell mediated immunity

A

The adapted cellular response to infection.

Phagocytes digest pathogens and the antigens are fragmented within a PHAGOLYSOSOME(Antigen presenting cell), then moved to phagocytes surface.

MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY CLASS(MHC) embed antogen fragment for presentation on the surface of the APC. The Complex is now able to be detected by T lymphocytes/cell. T-cells multiply by mitosis generating specialized t-cells.

Helper t-cells secrete chemicals to stimulate growth and differentiation of CYTOTOXIC T-cells that kill damaged cells

213
Q

Explain the 2 T-cells that act after the infection passes

A

Suppressor T-cell: Inhibits immune system to prevent further destruction of host tissue

Memory T-cell: Stays after infection period for if pathogen is rencountered.

214
Q

Humoral response

A

Adaptive response to pathogens in blood & lymph

215
Q

Explain the process of the humoral response

A

pathogens detected by white blood cells(b-cells) recognizes specific antigens on bacteria. Once B-cells are activated they proliferate & differentiate into PLASMA cells that secrete millions of antibodies that circulate throughout the body activating defense mechanisms

216
Q

3 defense mechanisms of the humoral response:
Neutralization, Opsonization and the Complement system

A

Neutralization:
Antibodies bind to pathogen’s surface neutralizing its ability to infect host ceell
Opsonization:
Pathogens opsonized(tagged) for engulfment & destruction by phagocytosis(via macrophages and neutrophils)
Complement system:
Complex proteins activated further enhancing opsonization and destruction of pathogens

217
Q

What to be cells turn into after infection is cleared?

A

Memory B-cells continue to produce small amount of antibodies after so it can target if the pathogen re-enters.

218
Q

Life history

A

Pattern of survival & reproductive event for a species

219
Q

Semelparous vs Iteroparous

A

Semelparous:
Individuals breed ONE time in life
Iteroparous:
Individuals potentially breed potentially multiple times in life

220
Q

Perennials vs Annuals

A

Perennials:
1 generation over several years
Annuals:
1 generation per year

221
Q

Fecundity

A

organisms’s reproductive capacity(no. of offspring)

222
Q

Parental investment

A

Time & energy invested in offspring

223
Q

Qty vs Quality trade off in organisms

A

If there are many offspring, not much time can be allocated to. Fewer offsprings allow for more time and energy to be invested

224
Q

Late vs Early reproduction strategy

A

Late reproduction strategy
Long lived, larger body size
Energy invested in growth and larger size
lower mortality rates
Early reproduction strategy
Short lived, small in body size
Energy invested in reproduction rather than growth

225
Q

K selection vs r selection

A

K selection:
Selection for traits advantageous in high density populations
populations more stable
r selection:
Selection for traits advantageous in low density populations
populations less stable
under go boom and busts

226
Q

Define population

A

Group of the same species living in the same location - relying on the same resources,
- influenced by similar environmental conditions
- interact with each other

227
Q

What are the 2 types of boundaries?

A

Natural:
Lake extent for fish, island size for terrestials
Arbitrary(national parks)
Human imposed
We have to match the boundary to the purpose of study and organism.

228
Q

How are population sizes(dynamic) determined

A

how many individuals in population and how they change overtime.
Birth: Increase no. of population
Death decrease no. of population
Emigration: Individuals leave population
Immigration Individuals enter population

229
Q

How is population distribution determined

A

Extent of how individuals are spread in population

230
Q

How is population structure determined

A

By sex ratios and the age structure

231
Q

2 ways to estimate population size

A
  1. Full census
    Count every single detail which is time and labour intensive
  2. Sampling estimate
    Distribute ploys and count all individuals in plot estimating density and then extrapolate across entire range
232
Q

Mark recapture mechanism

A

Catch individuals -> mark them -> return to population to allow them to reproduce -> recapture individuals from that population

233
Q

What are key assumptions in mark recapture

A
  • mark remains for length of study
  • Marks don’t decrease survivability of individual
  • Probability of recapture remains consistent(some are trap shy or trap prone)
  • Closed population(no birth, death, immigration)
234
Q

What do violations of mark recapture’s assumptions lead to?

A

Systematic over of under estimation of abundance
Open population methods account for this

235
Q

Natural vs artificial marks

A

Natural marks:
Patterns on dorsal fin of dolphins
Artificial marks:
Neck/leg collars or dyes on shell

236
Q

When are sign of indices used

A

When animals are hard to capture or spot, presence of signs OR individuals in population to measure relative abundance(footprints)

They are less intrusive and more ethical

237
Q
A

Foundational Biology (3 decks)

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