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Bio lab test 2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Skeletal muscles

A

Contain specialized receptors which convey infor about muscle length, tension, and pressure to the central nervous system.

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2
Q

Muscle spindles

A

The mechanosensory receptors responsible for provinding information about the length or the rate of change of the length of a muscle.

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3
Q

What is a stretch (myotatic) reflex?

A

Spindles arranged parallel with muscle fibres and are stretched when an external force like a tendon tap stretches the muscle, causing excitation of its muscle spindles and results in a reflex contraction of the muscle.

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4
Q

What are factors than result in minimal time delay from when muscle is stretched to when muscle contracts?

A

Stretch reflexes involve large diameter sensory axons and contain a small number of synapses in the circuit.

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5
Q

Why do stretch reflexes have a monosynaptic pathway?

A

The sensory afferent nerves from the muscle spindles enter the spinal cord and synapse directly with motor neurons, rather than with interneurons. When motor neurons are triggered, they trigger contraction of the same muscle group. Same sensory neuron also synapses to an interneuron that connects to another neuron, stimulating antagonistic muscle group, completing reflex arc.

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6
Q

Calf muscle group responsible for extension of the foot during the Achilles reflex

A

The calf muscle group is composed of the gastrocnemius (which
consists of two branches or heads) and the soleus (which lies underneath the gastrocnemius).
The gastrocnemius and soleus merge at the base of the calf and are joined to the Achilles tendon
by tough connective tissue.

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7
Q

Why won’t dancers generate optimal results?

A

They work diligently on

their flexibility and may override muscle spindle activity.

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8
Q

Downward movement of the foot

A

Plantar flexion

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9
Q

Upward movement of the foot

A

Opposite of plantar, called dorsiflexion.

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10
Q

Why must you multiply distance between belly of calf muscle and location of sensory motor synapse in spinal cord by two?

A

Signal travels to and from this location.

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11
Q

Achilles monosynaptic? True or false?

A

Even though this stretch reflex is known as a monosynaptic reflex, the pathway also
includes the neuromuscular synapse.

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12
Q

Conduction velocity

A

Assume synaptic transmission takes 0.5 msec, calculate conduction velocity in the nerves composing reflex pathway:
[total path length (m)]/[mean reflex time (sec) - synaptic transmission time] = conduction velocity m/s

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13
Q

What does the strength of a striated muscle contraction depend on?

A

the amount of electrical activity in

the muscle.

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14
Q

What did we use to measure grip strength?

A

A hand dynanometer - EMG activity from forearm.

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15
Q

Motor neuron

A

Innervates groups of muscle fibres that make up vertebrate skeletal muscle. Single motor neuron has a branched axon, allowing it to innervate multiple muscle fibers (few to several thousand).

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16
Q

Motor unit

A

The motor neuron and the muscle fibres it innervates.

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17
Q

Motor unit contraction

A

When the motor neuron undergoes an action potential, all of the
associated muscle fibers are stimulated and contract. By increasing the number of active motor
units the strength or force of the muscle contraction will increase in a principle known as motor unit
recruitment.

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18
Q

Maximal level of muscle activity

A

Since there is a finite number of motor units in each muscle, once all of the motor
units have been recruited no additional force can be generated. At this point we will observe a
plateau of muscle force as we reach the maximal level of muscle activity.

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19
Q

Osmosis

A

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane (biological or
artificial), from an area of low solute concentration (hypotonic or hypo-osmotic) to an area of
high solute concentration (hypertonic or hyperosmotic). Osmosis is a type of passive transport that requires that the membrane restrict the
movement of at least one solute but not water (i.e. be semipermeable).

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20
Q

Isotonic

A

If the concentration of solute and water

become equal on either side of the membrane, the solution is deemed to be isotonic or iso-osmotic.

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21
Q

Osmoregulation

A

Osmoregulation is
simply the regulation of water and ion concentrations in the body. Many biological membranes,
including the plasma membrane, are semipermeable. Solutes such as inorganic ions and large
organic molecules are incompatible with the plasma membrane structure and do not easily
cross the plasma membrane. In contrast, water is a relatively small molecule possessing high
kinetic energy and it moves freely across the plasma membrane along any solute gradient that
might be present.

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22
Q

Why are the effects of osmosis are exceedingly important to animals, especially those from an
aquatic environment?

A

These animals live in direct contact with an aqueous solution, and the
membranes of their body surfaces are semipermeable. Thus, whole body water and solute
concentrations are influenced directly by their environment. Many aquatic animals possess
specific tissues and organs designed to regulate body (extracellular) water and solute
concentrations.

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23
Q

Osmoregulators

A

Animals that maintain body solute concentrations different from the environment
are called osmoregulators. All freshwater animals are osmoregulators and are generally
hyperosmotic to their environment (low environmental salt content). Thus, freshwater animals
are faced with body weight gains and losses depending on the osmotic gradient that exists in
their environment.

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24
Q

Osmoconformors

A

Some marine animals do not maintain their osmotic concentrations different
from the environment and are called osmoconformers. Sodium is the predominant cation in
the extracellular fluid of multicellular animals and in seawater. By osmoconforming, some
animals take advantage of the high level of Na+ in seawater so that minimal energy and body
structures are needed for osmoregulation. Generally, the large volume of water in the ocean
ensures minimal fluctuations of the osmotic environment and osmoconformers are usually
exposed to a relatively stable environment.

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25
Q

Most osmoregulatory systems involve:

A

the active transport of ions across an epithelial surface,

with water following the ion gradient by osmosis.

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26
Q

Terrestrial invertebrate blood concentrations

A

Evolved from freshwater or littoral ancestors, 250 - 500 mOsm (milliosmolar)

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27
Q

Seawater milliosmolar concentration

A

1000 mOsm

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28
Q

Two problems associated with osmoregulation for land invertebrates:

A

First, salts have to be consumed, as they are not readily
available on land. Second, water must be obtained and preserved within the animal, since
evaporation from the body will always occur. The external skin of terrestrial invertebrates
functions to let oxygen in and carbon dioxide out as well as preventing water and ion loss. The
internal tissues of annelids are hyperosmotic relative to the freshwater soil surroundings. As a
result annelids take in water osmotically and produce hyposmotic urine to get rid of excess
water.

29
Q

Metanephridia

A

In annelids, excretion and osmoregulation are accomplished by a highly developed organ
system called metanephridia.

30
Q

Express body mass of each animal as percentage of initial mass:

A

Final weight/initial * 100. >100 means gained water.

31
Q

Blood plasma

A

The non-cellular fluid of blood. Isotonic relative to the cytoplasm of blood cells.

32
Q

Human respiratory system

A

consists of a series of tubes that branch and terminate as

clusters of small membranous air sacs called alveoli.

33
Q

Oxygen and CO2 rely on what to

cross the alveolar membrane?

A

simple diffusion

34
Q

Factors that influence diffusion of gases between lungs and the blood:

A

the amount of respiratory surface area, diffusion distance and concentration gradient.

35
Q

A high concentration gradient is ensured by:

A

(1) movement of blood with low O2
and high CO2 levels to the lungs and (2) pulmonary ventilation (breathing), which maintains a high
level of O2 and a lower level of CO2 in the alveolar air.

36
Q

Tidal volume

A

The amount of air that moves in

or out of the lungs during any one breathing cycle is called the tidal volume (TV)

37
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

After normal
inspiration, it is possible to breathe in additional air—this is called the inspiratory reserve volume
(IRV)

38
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

Similarly, after a normal expiration, it is possible to exhale additional air from the lungs—this
is the expiratory reserve volume (ERV).

39
Q

residual volume

A

Even if the expiratory reserve volume is fully expelled
from the lungs, there is still a volume of air in the lungs, called the residual volume (RV) that
cannot be exhaled. The RV has lower O2 and higher CO2 concentrations than atmospheric air.
Upon inspiration, however, fresh air mixes with stale air from the RV, and the alveolar O2 and CO2
concentrations will be sufficient to facilitate diffusion of the gases to and from the capillaries.

40
Q

How is the amount of air moving to and from the respiratory surface of the lungs adjusted to
meet the metabolic demands of the individual?

A

This is done by altering the TV as well as increasing

the frequency of breathing.

41
Q

Vital capacity

A

The maximal volume of air that can be exchanged during a single
breathing cycle is called the vital capacity (VC) and represents the maximum TV possible for an
individual. In this situation, all of the IRV and ERV are used to generate the maximum volume of air
exchange in the lung.

42
Q

What regulates adjustments in the TV and breathing rate?

A

Adjustments in the TV and breathing rate are regulated by the brain’s
respiratory center in the medulla oblongata.

43
Q

Perihpheral chemoreceptors

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors to detect blood pH, O2,

and CO2 levels

44
Q

Stretch receptors

A

stretch receptors in the lungs provide important sensory information that
modulates the activity of respiratory center neurons.

45
Q

Spirometer

A

The quantity of air exchanged during lung ventilation can be measured using a volume
recorder called a spirometer.

46
Q

Breathing rate (breaths/minute)

A

60 seconds/minute divided by mean breath period (sec/breath)

47
Q

Minute respiratory volume

A

Multiply mean tidal volume by breathing rate to calculate the volume of air passing through
the subject’s lungs each minute.

48
Q

In healthy individuals, the ___ is usually about ___ of the ___.

A

VC, 75%, TLC (total lung capacity)

49
Q

True or false? RV cannot be measured using spirometer.

A

True. Must be estimated. TLC - VC

50
Q

Volumes within ___ of predicted volumes are normal.

A

20%. Greater, may simply point to need for more testing.

51
Q

Estimate of VC in liters

A

VC (Male) = (0.052H) - 0.022A - 3.60

VC (Female) = 0.041H - 0.018A - 2.69

52
Q

Inspiratory capacity

A

TV+IRV

53
Q

Expiratory cpacity

A

TV+ERV

54
Q

Functional Residual Capacity

A

ERV+RV

55
Q

Total Lung Capacity

A

TV+RV+IRV+ERV

56
Q

The cardiac cycle in humans and other vertebrates involves the sequential contraction of the:

A

atria and the ventricles.

57
Q

The heart’s rhythmical contraction sequence is triggered by:

A

action
potentials from myocardial cells that are conducted in a coordinated fashion throughout the entire
heart.

58
Q

Where do electrical signals to initiate vertebrate heart contraction originate?

A

in the myocardial

cells, though several aspects of heart activity can be modified by the autonomic nervous system.

59
Q

What is Excitation or inhibition of the heart is accomplished by?

A

changes to the contraction rate and
various other parameters associated with myocardial contraction. An obvious example is the
increase in heart rate that occurs during exercise.

60
Q

Increased heart rate and reducing overall time that complete depolarization/repolarization cycle occurs

A

Increased heart rate (measured in beats per minute) is
primarily accomplished by reducing the time between beats (i.e. the T-P interval) and the overall
time that a complete depolarization/repolarization cycle occurs (i.e. the P-T interval). This latter
effect is accomplished by altering the conduction velocity of the electrical signals as they travel
throughout the heart.

61
Q

Pressure resevoir

A

Once ejected from the heart, blood enters the arterial system for distribution throughout the
body. The arterial system functions as a pressure reservoir in that the amount of blood flow is
directly related to the pressure difference along an artery. Increased heart function will increase
centralized blood pressure, but signals from the autonomic nervous system can also control the
BIOL 224 Lab 7: Page
Copyright 2015- Tracy Marchant & Sheri Fisher
2
degree of contraction of the smooth muscle found in the walls of the arteries.

62
Q

Vasoconstriction/vasodilation

A

Once ejected from the heart, blood enters the arterial system for distribution throughout the
body. The arterial system functions as a pressure reservoir in that the amount of blood flow is
directly related to the pressure difference along an artery. Increased heart function will increase
centralized blood pressure, but signals from the autonomic nervous system can also control the
BIOL 224 Lab 7: Page
Copyright 2015- Tracy Marchant & Sheri Fisher
2
degree of contraction of the smooth muscle found in the walls of the arteries.

63
Q

Flight or flight response

A

Autonomous N.S. influences heart rate directly - sympathetic NS releases epi from adrenal glands, heart beats faster. Parasympathetic releases acetylcholine from vagus nerve, bind to heart receptors, beat slower.

64
Q

baroreceptor reflex

A

Several peripheral feedback loops
within the autonomic nervous system are used to simultaneously coordinate heart activity, arterial
blood pressure and overall blood flow in the body. The baroreceptor reflex is one of the most
important of these feedback loops. This reflex normally acts to ensure that central arterial blood
pressure is maintained at a level appropriate for metabolic activities in the body, but that is not too
high to cause rupture of arterial vessels or excess fluid leakage from the capillaries. used to coordinate heart activity, arterial blood pressure and peripheral blood
flow.

65
Q

Diving

A

Diving in these animals generally causes selective peripheral vasoconstriction and a sharply
reduced blood flow to the limbs, gut and the skin. This ensures that blood is delivered to organs
with the highest need for oxygen, including the brain and heart.

66
Q

Diving bradycardia

A

the selective
vasoconstriction that takes place during diving has the potential to cause a significant increase in
the blood pressure of the central arteries. This is avoided by a baroreceptor-mediated response
known as diving bradycardia, where heart rate is substantially reduced to ensure that blood
pressure in central arteries does not exceed safe levels.

67
Q

Heart valves

A

The hearts sounds “lub
dub” are made as valves within the heart close. As the valves close, a very small amount of blood is
pushed backward through the valve. This creates a very short period of turbulence that can be
heard through the stethoscope.

68
Q

Sphygmomanometer

A

The sphygmomanometer is the most commonly

used device to determine arterial blood pressure.

69
Q

heart rate (bpm)

A

60 s/m divided by second/beat

Bio lab test (3 decks)

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