bio lab final Flashcards
what is the role of photosynthesis?
captures the energy of sunlight that constantly streams in from outside our planet and converts this energy into more easily usable forms of complex organic compounds known as carbohydrates/sugars
all living things depend on t the organic molecules made by these organisms
what organisms do photosynthesis
plants, algae and cyanobacteria
what organisms perform cellular respiration or fermentation of both
all organisms
what is the role of cellular respiration and fermentation?
these are metabolic pathways by which the energy from organic compounds can be released and converted into ATP. This molecule cells use directly to fuel cellular processes
what is the summary equation for cellular respiration
glucose + O2 —-> CO2 + H2O + energy
where do the different steps of cellular respiration occur
glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, Acetyl CoA synthesis happens in the mitochondrial matric, citric acid cycle happens in the mitochondrial matrix and oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane
what are the 4 steps in cellular respiration?
glycolysis, Acetyl Co-A synthesis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
what does glycolysis produce
ATP, NADH (ETC) and heat
what does acetyl co A synthesis produce
CO2
what does the citric acid cycle produce
NADH, FADH, CO2 and heat
what does oxidative phosphorylation produce
O2 and heat
why does blowing into water change the pH?
why is this dangerous in the body and how does our body handle it?
because CO2 reacts with water to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3)
It’s dangerous because changes in pH can denature proteins that keep us alive. Our bodies have a bicarbonate buffer system to maintain pH. our kidneys make HCO3 to react with the extra H+
why does your heart and breathing go up when exercising but your O2 saturation levels stay the same
our heart rate goes up because we want to get oxygen to our tissues faster. as we increase our ventilation it allows for oxygen to be more available to red blood cells
products of fermentation in humans vs yeast
humans produce ATP, we also produce lactic acid. products of test fermentation are CO2 and ethanol (ferme
in experiment with sugar and yeast vs yeast. both have tubes which one has CACO3 present
the one with yeast and sucrose rather than just sucrpse
what is primary productivity?
the production of organic compounds by photosynthesis
equation for photosynthesis
CO2 + H2O + energy/ sunlight —-> Glucose + O2
what two colours of light are absorbed by chlorophyll
blue and red
what is the result of meosis
the parent cell was originally haploid, but the products are haploid
describe the structure of a chloroplast
photosynthetic pigments are embedded in the thylakoid membrane organized into grana. The fluid surrounding the grana is the stroma
what pigment in leaves was extracted by alcohol in the heating experiment.
why did only one react with starch
chlorophyll
because the one in the dark couldn’t photosynthesize. so it used up it’s glucose storage to stay alive
what compound is stored in a photosynthesizing leaf? where?
starch which is found in the chloroplasts
tell me about interphase
made of G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase
S phase is where DNA replication occurs
what is the longest phase of the cell cycle
interphase
mitosis vs cytokinesis
mitosis is the process by which a nucleus is divided to produce two daughter nuclei identical in genetic material.
cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm which completes the separation and two new cells
is cytokinesis a part of mitosis
no, happens during late anaphase / early telophase
where does cell division occur in plants
the apical meristem
what is the cambium?
a region of actively dividing cells that can also produce new plant tissue for lateral growth
what are the 4 stages of mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
what happens during prophase
the chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes. Each chromatid pair (sister chromatid) is held together at centromere. The spindle forms, the nuclear membrane fragments and the nucleoli dissapear.
metaphase
the chromosomes form a line across the middle of the cell called the equatorial plane or plate. chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers at the centromere, which are aligned at the equatorial plane, the spindle fibers appear to originate from the opposite end of the cells (poles)
anaphase
the sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart at the centromeres by the spindle microtubules and move to opposite poles. (once separated are called chromosomes again)
telophase
the chromosomes have reached the poles and the spindle begins to disappears as the nuclear membrane re-forms around each mass of uncoiling chromosomes.
in plant cells, a cell plate is formed as vesicles produced by the golgi co plex line up across the equatorial plate and begin to fuse together. Cellulose accumulates in the space between the membranes of the cell plate to form the new cell walls. Eventually the cell plate fusese with the plasma membrane and 2 new cells produces
what are homologous chromosomes
have the same length, centromere is in the same position and they posses genes for the same traits. (one from mom and one from dad) diploid cell 2n
what is a cleavage furrow?
indentation in the membrane deepens progressively as a ring of microfilaments surrounding the equatorial plane contracts, eventually resulting in the formation of 2 daughter cells
what are centrioles?
formed from proteins and microtubules and are rarely found in plants. the centrioles separate in early prophase and microtubules appear to radiate out from them forming the spindle and two star like asters
what happens after fertilization?
a zygote is produced which is now diploid
what happens in meiosis I
carefully matches up the pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell in a process called synopsis then pulls them apart to produce 2 haploid cells
what happens is meiosis II
similar to mitosis. each chromosome starts meiosis with 2 chromatids these are pulled apart during meiosis II. when both stages are done there are 4 daughter cells
what happens in prophase I
each chromosome is made of 2 chromatids held together are centrometer. homologous chromosomes pair in a process called synopsis. paired chromosomes coil around each other and cross-over occurs.
the spindle microtubules form and attach to the centromere of the short, thick chromosomes, nucleoli and nuclear membrane dissapear
where does meiosis occur
in the testes and ovaries
what happens in metaphase I
the homologous pairs are moved to the centre of the cell by the microtubules with their centromeres on either side of the equatorial plane
what happens in anaphase I
the homologous pairs are pulled apart and each homologue, consisting of sister chromatids is then moved to opposite poles. At this point, each individual chromosome still consists of 2 sister chromatids
note: maternal and paternal chromosomes go to dif poles
what is a reductional division?
the total number of chromosomes in each cell will be reduced by half
what happens in telophase I
the chromosomes of the two daughter nuclei are grouped at opposite poles
the chromosomes uncoil and pass into interkinesis, similar to mitotic interphase. During interkinesis, however, no DNA replication occurs and cytokinesis may or may not take place. Each daughter nucleis is now haploid even though each chromosome is composed of a pair of sister chromatids
what happens in meoisis II
the second meiotic division is an equational division (the total number of chromosomes per cell doesn’t change. end with 4 haploid cells
what is spermatogenesis and where does it occur
production of sperm which happens in the seminiferous tubules. one diploid cell produces 4 haploid sperm cells
what is oogenesis and where does it occur
production of an egg which occurs in the ovary. where a diploid cell undergoes meiosis to produce a single haploid egg and three polar bodies. disintegrate while the egg released during ovulation
what is the alternation of generations?
plant life cycle where meiosis and fertilization alternate.
what happens when plants do meiosis. what happens when spores mature
sporogenesis where plants produce haploid spores. they make gametes by mitosis
what is a sporophyte? what is a gametophyte? how do they differ?
a diploid, spore-producing plant. a gametophyte is a gamete-producing plant.
differ in appearance as well as chromosome number
what do ferns have?
the large green fronds are made of the diploid sporophyte generation of this plant. during reproductive season meiosis occurs in specialized spore containers found in the underside of leaves called sporangia. Sporangia are organized into clusters called sori (singular is sorus)
archegonia vs antheridia
archegonia are structures that produce eggs
antheridia produce sperm
what organelle is present in animal cells but not plant cells
centrioles
how to draw the gene map
what kind of organisms should we use for genetic studies
organisms with short life spans that produce lots of offspring and have few genes. like fruit flies
what is a monohybrid cross?
a cross between two individuals that are both heterozygous for the character that we are interested in following
how do you calculate the number of heterozygous genes
2 to the power of n
what does a gene tree look like with a recessive gene
neither of the parents have it (doesn’t show up), but the child does
what does a gene tree with a recessive gene look like
neither of the parents have the trait but their kid does
phenotype vs genotype
phenotype are the physical traits genotype refers to the genes that code for that trait. we usually use lowercase and uppercase letters to represent. (Bb)
what is a sex-linked trait?
a trait the may be carried on sex chromosome
what is an autosome
a non- sex chromosome
heterozygous vs homozygous recessive
Aa, aa
homozygous dominant vs heterozygous
AA, Aa
antibodies vs antigens
antibodies are defensive proteins that can recognize and bind to foreign substances
substances that elicit an antibody response are called antigens
type A antigens vs antibodies
have A antigens and b antibodies
type O antigens vs antibodies
has no antigens has both a and b antigens
when testing blood and it agglutinates what does it mean
that you have that antigen in your blood. A blood type will agglutinate with A serum
how do we show blood phenotypes
i for recessive IA for dominant
