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Bio II > Bio II Test 1 > Flashcards

Bio II Test 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Levels of organization

A
  • Atom
  • Molecule
  • Macromolecule
  • Cell
  • Tissue
  • Organ
  • Organism
  • Population
  • Species
  • Community
  • Ecosystem
  • Biosphere
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2
Q

Characteristics shared by all life

A
  • Requires energy
  • Response to stimuli
  • Maintain homeostasis
  • Reproduction
  • DNA
  • Cells
  • Adapts and evolves
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3
Q

Microevolution

A

change in population from one generation to the next

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4
Q

Vertical gene transfer

A

Ancestral lineage, tree of life

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5
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

Transfer of genetic material from one organism to another that is not offspring, web of life

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6
Q

Domains of life

A

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

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7
Q

Four groups of Eukarya

A
  • Protists - uni and multi
  • Plants - multi
  • Fungi - uni and multi
  • Animals - multi
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8
Q

Elements that make up 95% of all living organisms

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

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9
Q

Electronegativity

A

Tendency to attract electrons toward itself

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10
Q

Non - polar covalent

A

Equal electronegativities

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11
Q

Polar covalent

A

Different electronegativities

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12
Q

Hydrogen bonds interact with…

A

oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine

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13
Q

Metabolism

A

All chemical reactions occurring in living systems

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14
Q

Amphipathic molecules

A

Contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic region
- Micelles
- Bilayers
- Liposomes

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15
Q

In amphipathic molecules hydrophobic (non-polar) regions points…

A

Inwards

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16
Q

In amphipathic molecules hydrophilic regions point…

A

Outwards

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17
Q

Phospholipids make up…

A

Plasma/cell membranes

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18
Q

What ions are self - ionizing

A

Hydrogen, hydronium, and hydroxide ions

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19
Q

Acids release …

A

H+

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20
Q

Bases release …

A

OH-

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21
Q

Metallic bonds

A

Electrostatics attractive forces in metals

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22
Q

Ionic bonds

A

Transfer of electrons between cations and anions

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23
Q

Ionic bonds occur between …

A

Metals and non - metals

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24
Q

Covalent bonds

A

Sharing electrons between atoms, non-metals (polar/non - polar)

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25
Q

Polarity determines …

A

Behavior

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26
Q

Cohesion

A

Water molecules attracted to one another, surface tension

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27
Q

Adhesion

A

Attraction to charged surfaces

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28
Q

Dehydration synthesis

A

Forms covalent bonds between molecules

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29
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Breaks covalent bonds between molecules

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30
Q

Organic chemistry

A

Carbon containing molecules

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31
Q

Carbon can make ___ bonds

A

4

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32
Q

The backbone of organic molecules, can form polar and non-polar covalent bonds

A

Carbon

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33
Q

C - H bonds are …

A

Non - polar

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34
Q

C - O bonds are …

A

Polar

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35
Q

Groups of atoms with similar chemical composition, structure and properties

A

Functional groups

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36
Q

4 major biological groups

A

Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
Proteins
Lipids

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37
Q

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas

A

Isomers

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38
Q

Structural isomers

A

Same atoms different bonding relationship

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39
Q

Stereoisomers

A

Same atoms, same bonding, different spatial organization

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40
Q

Rotation around carbon - carbon bonds

A

Cis - trans

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41
Q

Mirror image molecules

A

Enantiomers

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42
Q

Large complex molecules

A

Macromolecules

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43
Q

Repeating units of smaller molecules - monomers

A

Polymers

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44
Q

Joining of monomers to form polymers

A

Polymerization / synthesis

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45
Q

Dehydration and synthesis is …

A

anabolic

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46
Q

Hydrolysis is …

A

Catabolic

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47
Q

The breakdown of polymers into monomers

A

Hydrolysis

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48
Q

Carbohydrates are composed of

A

C, H, and O

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49
Q

Carbohydrate structure

A

Linear or ring

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50
Q

Small carbs, simple sugars, short - term energy storage

A

Monosaccharides

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51
Q

Common monosaccharides

A

Pentose, Ribose, Deoxyribose, Hexose, Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

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52
Q

Conjunction of two monosaccharides

A

Disaccharides

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53
Q

Disaccharides form by

A

Dehydration synthesis resulting in glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides

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54
Q

Chains of monosaccharides

A

Polysaccharides

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55
Q

Complex carbs

A

Polysaccharides

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56
Q

Polysaccharide uses in plants

A

starch (long - term energy storage), cellulose (cell wall material

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57
Q

Polysaccharide uses in animals

A

Glycogen (long - term energy storage)

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58
Q

Building blocks of nucleic acids

A

Nucleotides

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59
Q

What are nucleic acids composed of

A

Phosphate groups, pentose sugar, nitrogenous base

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60
Q

DNA and RNA are …

A

Pentose sugars

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61
Q

Pyrimidine structure

A

Single ring

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62
Q

Purine structure

A

Double ring

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63
Q

Pyrimidines include

A
  • Cytosine (C)
  • Thymine (T) : DNA only
  • Uracil (U) : RNA only
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64
Q

Purines include

A
  • Adenine (A)
  • Guanine (G)
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65
Q

Nitrogenous base pairing

A

A - T
C - G

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66
Q

“Blueprint of life” - contains genes that encode for RNA and hereditary material

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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67
Q

Encodes information in DNA to synthesize proteins and perform other functions

A

RNA

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68
Q

Types of RNA

A
  • mRNA (Messenger RNA)
  • rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
  • tRNA (Transfer RNA)
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69
Q

Nucleic acids are formed by

A

joining nucleotides into long chains

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70
Q

Lipid structure

A

Hydrocarbon chains or rings

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71
Q

Lipid bonds are …

A

non - polar and hydrophobic

72
Q

Triglycerides are composed of …

A

one glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains

73
Q

Where are dietary fats stored in animals

A

circulate in bloodstream and stored in adipose tissue

74
Q

Fatty acids are …

A

composed of long hydrocarbon chains

75
Q

Bilayer make up

A
  • Hydrophilic heads pointing out
  • Hydrophobic tails pointing in
  • Create watertight barrier
  • Used as membrane barrier
76
Q

Structure for biological membrane

A
  • Plasma membrane
  • Vesicles
  • Liposomes
  • Membrane-bound organelles
  • Bilayers
77
Q

Triglycerides and phospholipids both contain …

A

fatty acids

78
Q

Fats with single bonds

A

Saturated

79
Q

Saturated fats are …

A
  • Tightly packed
  • Have high melting points
  • Solid at room temperature
  • Mostly found in animals
80
Q

Double bonded fatty acids

A

Unsaturated

81
Q

Unsaturated fats are …

A
  • Loosely packed, low melting point, liquid at room temperature
  • Found in animals
  • Monounsaturated - one double bond
  • Polyunsaturated - two or more double bonds
  • Double bonds introduce kinks into the hydrocarbon chains
82
Q

Steroid Structure

A
  • Four fused carbon rings
  • Hydroxyl group called sterols
83
Q

Steroids are

A
  • Hormones - signaling molecules
  • Cell membranes - increase fluidity
84
Q

Protein structure

A
  • Monomer - polymer structure
    • Amino acids are the building blocks for polypeptide chains
    • Amino acids are composed of central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group
85
Q

Protein levels

A

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

86
Q

Primary structure of proteins

A
  • Sequence of amino acids
  • Specified by genetic code
  • Static - cannot change
87
Q

Secondary structure of proteins

A
  • Not all proteins have secondary structure
  • Repeated patterns of folding caused by hydrogen bonds - motifs such as alpha-helices or beta pleated sheets
88
Q

Tertiary structure of protein

A
  • Folding caused by interactions between R-groups
  • Domains are regions that fold separetly from rest of polypeptide
  • Final 3D shape of polypeptide
89
Q

Quaternary structure of protein

A

Not all protein have quaternary structure - 2+ polypeptides

90
Q

When a protein loses shape

A

Denaturation

91
Q

Causes of denaturation

A

Change in temperature, pH, and salinity

92
Q

Denaturation occurs in what protein levels

A

Quaternary, tertiary, and secondary

93
Q

Loss of shape =

A

loss of function

94
Q

Protein functions

A
  • Largest diversity of function
  • 50% organic material in animals
  • Structural / mechanical roles
    • Support motility
  • Involved in every cellular process
95
Q

Amino acid components

A
  • Central carbon atom
  • Amino group - acid as an acid
  • Carboxl group - base
  • R-group - side chain
96
Q

Polypeptide structure

A
  • Nucleotides in long chains
  • N - terminus orientation
  • C - terminus orientation
97
Q

Cell theory

A
  • All organisms are composed of cells
  • Cells are the smallest living things
  • Cells arise only from pre - existing cells
98
Q

Function of DNA

A

Stores information needed to make proteins into genes

99
Q

RNA function

A

Transcribes information in DNA and translates it to proteins

100
Q

Steps of a cell:

A

Nucleotides & amino acids produced by natural processes before cells existed

Nucleotides = polymerized to form RNA or DNA

Amino acids = polymerizewd to form proteins

Polymers enclosed in lipid membranes

Properties acquired that are associated with cells

101
Q

3 hypotheses of how life began

A

1) Reducing atmosphere hypothesis

2) Extraterrestrial hypothesis - amino acids and nucleotides found in materials from asteroids and comets

3) Deep sea vent hypothesis - Cracks in seafloor, water rich in materials mixed with cold seawater = diverse communities

102
Q

Protobionts likely contained by

A
  • Boundary or membrane
  • Polymer containing information
  • Polymers with catalytic functions
  • Capable of self-replication
103
Q

Coacervates

A

Droplets that form spontaneously from association of charged polymers such as proteins, carbs, or nucleic acids

104
Q

Liposomes surrounded by phospholipid bilayer are

A
  • Selectively permeable
  • Store energy in electrochemical gradient
  • Clay can catalyze the production of liposomes that grow and divide
    • A primitive form of replication
105
Q

What is favored as the first organic macromolecule

A

RNA

106
Q

Two types of cells

A

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

107
Q

Prokaryotic include:

A

Bacteria and Archaea

108
Q

Eukaryotic include:

A

Eukarya

109
Q

Shared features of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

A
  • Plasma membrane
  • Cytoplasm (place) and cytosol (fluid)
  • DNA
  • Ribosomes
110
Q

Prokaryote organization

A
  • Lage & Circular
  • Found in nucleoid region
  • Smaller circular plasmids
  • No nucleus, chromosomal DNA found in nucleoid region (cytoplasm)
  • Unicellular (simple cells)
    • No compartmentalization
    • Metabolic reactions in cytoplasm
111
Q

Prokaryote structures with their functions

A
  • Nucleoid - DNA site
  • Plasma membrane - Encloses cytoplasm
  • Cell Wall - Support and protection
  • Golycoclyx - Outer gelatinous covering
  • Flagella - allow certain bacteria to swim
  • Pill - allow bacteria to attach to surfaces and to one another
  • Cytoplasm - site of metabolism
  • Ribosome - Synthesize polypeptides
112
Q

Eukaryotes organization

A
  • Linear chromosome in nucleiod region
  • Mitochondria DNA (mtDNA)
  • Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA)
  • Both unicellular and multicellular organisms
  • Large and complex with organelles
    • Droplet organelles: Compartmentalization via membrane-bound chemical compartments
      • Liquid - liquid phase separation
      • High concentration of solutes, proteins or RNA’s, concentrate into droplet forming barrier - facilitate polymerization
        Chemically distinct membrane compartments
113
Q

Eukaryotes structure and function

A
  • Nucleus - genetic material organized, store and expressed
  • Nucleolous - site of ribosome assembly
  • Nuclear pore - passageway for molecules in and out of nucleus
  • Nuclear envelope - Double membrane structure encapsulating nucleus
  • Chromatin - Complex of protein and DNA
  • Lysosome - Site of macomolecule degredation
  • Ribosomes - polypeptide synthesis
  • Plasma membrane - Membrane containing controls movement of substances into and out of cell, cell signaling
  • Cytosol - Site of metabolic pathways
  • Golgi Apparatus - Site of modification sorting, secretion of lipids and proteins
  • Preoxisome - Site where harmful molecules are broken down
  • Cytoskeleton - Protein filaments that provide shape and aid in movejment
  • Mitochondrion - Site of ATP synthesis
  • Smooth ER - Detoxification and lipid syntheis
  • Rough ER - Site of protein sorting and secretion
  • Centrosome - Site where microtubules grow and centrioles found
114
Q

Eukaryotic cells with four interacting parts

A
  • Nucleus
  • Endomembrane system
  • Cytosol
  • Semiautonomous organelles
115
Q

Semiautonomous organelles are derived from …

A

Free-living prokaryotes via endosymbiosis

116
Q

Two semiautonomous organelles

A
  • Chloroplasts
  • Mitochondria
117
Q

Three plastid types

A
  • Chloroplasts
  • Amyloplasts
  • Chromoplasts
118
Q

Chloroplasts are …

A

Triple membrane bound - inner - outer and thylakoid membranes (composed of stacked grana)

119
Q

Mitochondria are …

A

Double - membrane with complex folds associated with the inner membrane called cristae

120
Q

Mitochondria is the site of …

A

Aerobic cellular respiration - Convert chemical energy stored in the bonds or organic molecules into energy in the form of ATP that can fuel metabolic reactions

121
Q

Location of plasma membrane

A

Boundary between cell cytoplasm and its environment
- Matrix composed of semi - fluid phospholipid bilayer with proteins and other biological molecules embedded or attached

122
Q

Functions of the plasma membrane

A
  • Homeostasis
  • Materials transport
  • Cell signaling
  • Cell adhesion
123
Q

Function of vesicles

A

Transport of cell material

124
Q

Lysosome function

A

Intracellular digestion of macromolecules via acid hydrolase

125
Q

Vacuole function

A

Storage, regulation of cell volume, degradation

126
Q

Peroxisome function

A

Catalyze detoxifying reactions - breakdown hydrogen peroxide

127
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum function

A

Network of membranes that form flattened fluid - filled sacs called cistern - lumen: interior matrix

128
Q

Two types of ER

A

Rough and smooth

129
Q

Function of the rough of ER

A

Outer surface studded with ribosomes
- Rough ER - outer surface studded with ribosomes
- RER sorts proteins headed for ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, or plasma membrane
- Proteins packaged into vesicles for transport and glycosylation

130
Q

Smooth ER function

A

No ribosomes
- Detoxification
- Carbohydrate and lipid synthesis
- Storage / release of calcium ions

131
Q

Nucleus functions and organization

A
  • Double - membrane bound structure that contains nuclear DNA
  • Nuclear envelope that is studded with pores - exchange materials with cytosol
  • Part of endomembrane system as its outer membrane is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum
  • Nucleus contain multiple linear strands of DNA called chromosomes
  • Chromatin complex - DNA molecucles and associated proteins
  • Nuclear matrix organized chromosomes into distinct territories
  • Contains nucleolus
  • Droplet organelles in non - dividing cells responsible for synthesis of rRNA and ribosomal subunits
132
Q

Golgi apparatus function

A
  • Flattened sacs with distinct compartments - distinct orientation (cis and trans faces
  • Processing and modifying proteins and lipids
  • Glycoslylation and proteolysis
  • Packing materials to be secreted from the cell
  • Generating vesicles for intracellular transport
133
Q

Cellular motility structures

A

Cilia and Flagella

134
Q

Structures and functions of motor proteins

A
  • Use of ATP as energy source to facilitate the movement of materials within cell
  • Coordinate the movement of larger cargo inside cell
  • Move or bend cytoskeletal filaments
  • Associated with movement of cilia or flagella
  • Similar structure - head, hinge, and tail
  • Faciliate muscle contraction
    • Muscles composed of fibers that are composed on contractile units called sarcomeres
    • Sliding filament theory explains how this contraction occurs
    • Requires ATP and myosin heads that bind to actin during contraction and release during relaxation
135
Q

Cytoskeleton structure and function

A
  • Shape, support, organization, movement
  • 3 types of protein filaments
  • Primarily in cytosol and nuclear membrane
136
Q

Cytoplasm structure and function

A
  • Contains cytosol
    • Responsible for coordination of metabolic activities
    • Synthesis and breakdown of organic molecules
    • Site of intesne enzymatic activity in cells
  • Between plasma membrane and organelles
137
Q

Plasma membrane structure

A

matrix of phospholipid bilayers with protein components

138
Q

Plasma membrane function

A

allow cells and organelles to maintain homeostasis and aid in transport of materials

139
Q

A phosphate head is …

A

negatively charged, hydrophilic portion

140
Q

Phospholipid bilayer contains

A
  • Glycerol
    • Triol - three hydroxide groups
  • Two fatty acid tails
141
Q

Function of phospholipid tails

A
  • Hydrophobic portion
  • Vary in length - saturated or unsaturated
  • Changes to the structure of fatty acids influence fluidity
142
Q

Phospholipid bilayer structure

A
  • Biological membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers
    • Leaflets = layers
    • Hydrophilic polar heads point toward intra - and extracellular environments
    • Hydrophobic non - polar tails point toward each other
    • Water tight boundary layer - good membrane material in living systems
143
Q

Fluidity influencing factors of membrane

A
  • Semi - fluid
    • Water holds bilayer in place - phospholipids move laterally, rotate about themselves, flip leaflets
    • Evidence for lipid rafts carrying closely associated proteins
  • Length of fatty acids
    • 14 - 24 carbons
    • Shorter tails increase fluidity
    • Longer tails decrease fluidity
  • Fatty acid saturation
    • Unsaturated = increased fluidity
    • Saturated = decreased fluidity
  • Cholesterol in animals
    • Stabilizes membranes
    • Temperature - dependent
    • Too much - leaky membrane
144
Q

How does temperature influence fluidity

A
  • High temp = increase fludity
  • Low temp = decrease fluidity, water freezes and ice crystals fracture membranes
  • Organisms in temperate and polar zones adjust membrane seasonally
    • Adjust tail length and fatty acid saturation
145
Q

Types of proteins in membrane

A
  • Transmembrane
  • Peripheral
  • Lipid
146
Q

Transmembrane function

A

Span bilayer, integral membrane protein
- Contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
- Attatched to extracellular matrix in animal cells
- Larger than phospholipids - move slowly

147
Q

Transmembrane structures

A
  • Alpha - helix
    - Recognition, Receptors
    • Helical bundle
      • Enzymes
      • Transporters
      • Receptors
    • Beta - sheet barrel
      • Transporters (channel proteins)
148
Q

Peripheral protein organization

A

Found on either side of bilayer usually attached to protein

149
Q

Lipid organization

A

Anchored, attached to a lipid in membrane, on either side

150
Q

Selective permeability

A

Membranes permit movement of some molecules and not others in and out of cell

151
Q

High permeability

A

Small, non polar, uncharged molecules

152
Q

Low permeability

A

Large, polar, and charged molecules

153
Q

Types of membrane transport

A
  • Simple
  • Facilitated
  • Active
154
Q

Simple transport

A

Movement of solute down gradient, no transport protein needed
- Restricted to small uncharged, non - polar molecules
- Movement down concentration gradient
- Areas of high solute to low solute concentration until equilibrium - equal both sides of membrane

155
Q

Facilitated transport

A

Movement down membrane with aid of transport protein
- Moves ions or small molecules that cannot freely diffuse
- Still diffusion - solutes moving down concentration grade
Transmembrane proteins
- Channel proteins are often gated and opened by solute bonding
- Transporter or carrier proteins undergo a conformational change to facilitate transfer

156
Q

Active transport

A

Cell provides energy, moves against concentration gradient with the aid of protein
- Cell must provide energy to transport materials against concentration gradient
- Primary active transport - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) directly provides energy
- Secondary active transport - uses energy from an established electrical and / or chemical gradient

157
Q

Types of transport of gradients

A
  • Electrical - charge difference between inside and outside of cell
  • Chemical - differences in chemical concentration inside / outside of cell
  • Electrochemical - combination of two; ex: ions
158
Q

Secondary active transport

A

Uses energy in concentration gradient established by primary active transport to move materials

159
Q

Types of transporters

A
  • Uniporters - bind a single ion / molecule and move in one direction only
  • Symporters - bind two or more ion / molecules and transport them in
  • Antiporters - bind two or more ion / molecules and transport them in opposite directions
160
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water in response to solute concentration gradients, aquaporins channel proteins that specialize in transporting water - may or may not be gated

161
Q

Water movement via osmosis

A
  • Water moves from areas of low solute to high solute concentration until equilibrium of concentration is reached
    • Water from areas of high water concentrations (low solute) to areas of low water concentration (high solute)
162
Q

Tonicity

A

Describes relative solute concentrations on either side of a membrane

163
Q

Hypotonic

A

Lower solute concentration

164
Q

Hypertonic

A

Higher solute concentration

165
Q

Isotonic

A

Equal solute concentration

166
Q

Osmosis in animal cells

A

Cells initially isonic

167
Q

Cells shrink when …

A

Placed in hypertonic solution

168
Q

Cells swell and may undergo osmotic lysis when …

A

Placed in a hypotonic solution

169
Q

Materials too large or numerous to be transported are transported via …

A

Proteins

170
Q

Vesicles …

A

Transport materials into and out of cells

171
Q

Exocytosis

A

Transport out of cell - require vesicle formation

172
Q

Endocytosis

A

Transport into cell - require vesicle formation, bring material into cell

173
Q

Endocytosis mechanisms

A
  • Receptor - meditated endocytosis
    • Target molecules bind to receptor proteins on membrane surface, triggering vesicle formation
  • Target molecules - ligands
174
Q

Factors affecting endocytosis rates

A

Number of receptors on plasma membrane and concentration of target molecules

175
Q

Pinocytosis

A
  • Vesicles form a plasma membrane and bring fluids and small molecules into cell “cell drinking”
  • Factors affecting rate:
    • Stimulus and mechanisms not understood
  • Substances involved:
    • Extracellular fluid with dissolved molecules such as nutrients
176
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  • Vesicles form in plasma membrane to bring solid particles into cell “cell eating”
  • How some protisis consume prey
    • Common in protists with amoeboid body types - pseudopods
  • How macrophage immune cells elimate bacteria
  • Factors affecting rate:
    • Presence of pathogens and cellular debris
  • Substaces involved:
    • Bacteria, viruses, cellular debris, and other foreign materials

Bio II (2 decks)

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