BIO-H Flashcards
Photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.
Photosynthesis equation
6CO2 + 6H2O –> light energy –> C6H12O6 + 6O2
C3 plants
A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate.
Photosynthesis only occurs when the stomata are open.
RuBisCo catalyzes carbon fixation.
C4 plants
A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle.
Photosynthesis occur in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.
Light Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
set of reactions in photosynthesis that do not require light; energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugar.
occurs in the stroma.
Light Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
set of reactions in photosynthesis that do not require light; energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugar.
occurs in the stroma.
Light Dependent Reaction
reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH.
occurs in thylakoids.
CAM plants (crassulacean acid metabolism)
a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions. In a plant using full CAM, the stomata in the leaves remain shut during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide (CO2).
Calvin Cycle Steps
Carbon Fixation- inorganic molecule to organic molecule.
Reduction- gain of electron.
Regeneration- RuPB is regenerated to prepare for more CO2 to be fixed.
Reactants of Calvin cycle
CO2, ATP, NADPH
Cellular Respiration
the process of breaking down food with the release of energy.
Reactants of cellular respiration
glucose and O2
Products of cellular respiration
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
cellular respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
2 types of cellular respiration
2 types of cellular respiration
Glycolysis
First step in breaking down glucose which produces 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH, and 2 ATP.
Glycolysis Reactant
Glucose
products of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
Fermentation
an anerobic pathway that uses the pyruvate to breakdown glucose to make NAD+/ Lactic Acid which will be recycled back to Glycolysis.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
The conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid.
Alcoholic Fermentation
anaerobic process in which cells convert pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol; carried out by many bacteria and fungi such as yeasts.
Transition Reaction
conversion of pyruvates to 2 Acetyl-CoA, 2 Co2, and 2 NADH
Krebs Cycle
main phase in breaking down the glucose which occurs in the mitochondria and it produces energies like: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, and 4 CO2
electron trasport chain
a cluster of proteins that transfer electrons to make ATP.
ETC reactants and products
6 NADH, 2 FADH2
32 ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
main energy source that cells use for most of their work.
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
plays a role in chemical process that generates energy.
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
FAD is oxidized from NADH and the energy is used to generate ATP.
Mitosis
cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes into two daughter cells.
Interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases.
Prophase
Longest phase of mitosis in which the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses and the chromosomes become visible.
Prometaphase
The nuclear envelope fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes. Chromosomes start to align at this stage.
Metaphase
second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. centrosomes are at the opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase
Chromosomes are segregated to different parts of the cell to serve as a complete genome for the next cell cycle.
Telophase
Separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into 2 identical daughter cells.
Cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
Diploid (2n= 46 chromosomes)
two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
homologous chromosomes- same shape, size, color, trait but vary in allele
Haploid (n= 23 chromosomes)
having a single set of chromosomes.
non-homologous chromosomes- do not belong to the same pair.
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
Chromatid
one of two identical “sister” parts of a duplicated chromosome in preparation for cell division.
Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached.
independent assortment
the random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
crossing over
the exchange of DNA between paired homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
genetic variation
Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments.
Why do cells don’t grow indefinitely?
The cell membrane must transport the food and oxygen to the parts inside of the cell.
Cell Cycle
series of events in which a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form two daughter cells.
Phase of cell cycle
G1 Phase- Growth, repair, old, too big,
S Phase- DNA synthesis
G2- Growth and Preparation for mitosis
M- Mitosis (cell division)
tumor suppressor genes
genes that make proteins that regulate the growth of cells, and they play an important role in preventing the development of cancer cells.
Proto-oncogenes
code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division.
Oncogenes
cancer causing genes.
DNA (deozyribonucleic acid)
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. Double Helix Structure.
Building blocks of DNA
Adenine-Thymine, Guanine-Cytosine (base pairs)
DNA is made up of
nucleotide (deoxyribose, phosphate, and a base)
Antiparellel
The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix. One strand goes 3’ to 5’ the other goes 5’ to 3
sugar-phosphate backbone
The alternating chain of 5-carbon deoxyribose and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached. These sugars are liked together by a phosphodiester bond.
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
a nucleic acid that translates the code stored in DNA, which makes possible the synthesis of proteins. Single strand structure.
RNA is made up of
Nucleotides (Ribose, Phosphate, and a Base)
Building blocks of RNA (base pairs)
Adenine-Uracil, Guanine-Cytosine
mRNA (messenger RNA)
RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
located in the cytoplasm of a cell where ribosomes are found. it directs the translation of mRNA into proteins.
tRNA (transfer RNA)
type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
restriction enzymes
Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides.
sticky ends
combine with another type of DNA.
blunt ends
Restriction fragments with no overlapping ends and that never combine with another type of DNA
Replication
producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. occurs in S-Phase.
Major steps in replication
- Helicase: unwinds DNA at origins of replication
- Initiation proteins separate 2 strands, forms replication bubble
- Primase puts down RNA primer to start replication
- DNA Polymerase III adds complimentary bases to leading strand (new DNA is made 5’ to 3’)
- Lagging strand grows in 3’ - 5’ direction by the addition of Okazaki fragments
- DNA polymerase I replaces RNA primers with DNA
- DNA ligase seals fragments together
How do enzymes work in replication?
They need phosphate.
semi-conservative
in each new DNA double helix, one strand is from the original molecule, and one strand is new.
Polymerase
an enzyme that is only capable of the genetic information stored in the nucleic acid.
RNA Primase
An enzyme that creates an RNA primer for initiation of DNA replication.
RNA Primer
short segment of RNA used to initiate synthesis of a new strand of DNA during replication.
DNA Ligase
an enzyme that eventually joins the sugar-phosphate backbones of the Okazaki fragments.
Topoisomerases
Enzymes that relieve twists and kinks in a DNA molecule by breaking and rejoining the strands.
Helicase
enzymes that breaks nucleic acid.
Lagging strands w/Okazaki Fragment
single DNA strand is replicated in the 5’-3’ direction.
Leading strand
single DNA strand is replicated in the 3’-5’ direction
Transcription
process of making DNA to mRNA which carries the information needed for protein synthesis.
Translation
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced.
Codon
sequence of three nucleotides which form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA.
Anticodon
A triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer RNA that identifies the amino acid carried and binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis at a ribosome.
Ribosome
site of protein synthesis
DNA “Cookbook”
46 chromosomes
23,000 genes
100,000 proteins
20 amino acids
*proteins are made up of amino acids.
CHNOPS
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur are biomolecules that are necessary for life.
Point mutation
gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been added, deleted, or changed.
silent mutation
A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.
frameshift mutation
inserting or deleting nucleotides that disrupt the reading frame of a DNA sequence
Nonsense mutation
change in DNA that cause a protein to end its translation earlier than expected.
Heredity
Passing of traits from parents to offspring generation to generation.
Genetics
study of heredity
gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait
trait
a particular characteristic, quality or tendency.
Allele
one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on a particular chromosome and control the same characteristic.
Dominant Trait
Stronger version of a pair of alleles that will appear in the offspring.
Recessive Trait
Weaker version of a pair of alleles that will only appear if there are two copies in the genome.
Homozygous
two identical alleles for a trait
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
genotype
genetic information
Phenotype
observable physical characteristics of an organism
codominance
situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism
Punnett Square
A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross
Karyotype
A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.
gene pool
Combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population
P1 generation
Parental generation; each parent was pure for a given trait.
F1 generation
offspring of the P1 generation
F2 generation
Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
incomplete dominance
neither allele is dominant
monhybrid cross
cross between two parents with only one different trait.
dihybrid cross
cross between two parents with two traits.
trihybrid cross
cross between two parents with three traits.
sex-linked traits
Traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes.
carrier
an individual who carries and can pass on to its offspring.
crossing over
the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring.
law of segreagation
homologous alleles (chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has one copy of each gene which is selected randomly.
law of independent assortment
Each member of a pair of homologous chromosomes separates independently of the members of other pairs so the results are random.
molecular genetics
the study of the structure and function of chromosomes and genes.
probability
likelihood that a particular event will occur
test cross
A way to explore the genotype of an organism
genotypic ratio
the number of times a genotype that appears in offspring
Phenotypic ratio
the ratio of phenotypes produced by a cross
