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Biology Final > Bio: Final Review > Flashcards

Bio: Final Review Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Mitosis

A

cell division that leads to the production of two cells, each identical to each other and the original parent cell with respect to the genetic information

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2
Q

Asexual reproduction

A

generates offspring that are genetically identical to a single parent

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3
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

two parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring

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4
Q

Five phases of mitosis:

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, and cytokinesis

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5
Q

meiosis

A

germ cells. a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores

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6
Q

meiosis or reduction devision

A
  • halves the ploidy number during gamete genesis
  • restores the ploidy number after fertilization
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7
Q

Cell division occurs twice in meiosis, which is:

A

1st division: Reduction devision - chromosome numbers reduced by half
2nd division: Equatorial division - similar in mechanism to meiosis

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8
Q

independent assortment and crossing over:

A

increases genetic variability

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9
Q

Stages of meiosis:

A
  • Interphase
  • Prophase I
  • Metaphase I
  • Anaphase I
  • Telophase I
  • Interkinesis or interphase II
  • Prophase II
  • Metaphase II
  • Anaphase II
  • Telophase II
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10
Q

The five stages in Prophase I:

A
  1. Leptotene
  2. zygotene
  3. Pachytene
  4. Diplotene
  5. Diakinesis
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11
Q

A gene

A

A unit of heredity that is transferred from a parents to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring

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12
Q

Hybrid

A
  1. the offspring of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species, or genera, especially through human manipulation for specific genetic characteristics
  2. Anything derived from heterogeneous sources, or composed of elements of different or incongruous kinds
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13
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic composition

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14
Q

Phenotype

A

traits that are visible to the naked eye

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15
Q

Gametes

A

reproductive cells produced by sexually reproducing organisms

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16
Q

types of gametes

A

Male gametes: sperm
Female gametes: eggs

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17
Q

Pseudoautosomal

A

regions are at both termini of sex chromosomes. a region of similarity between the X and Y chromosomes that is responsible for pairing the X and Y chromosomes during meiotic prophase I.

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18
Q

Gene cloning

A

makes multiple identical copies of gene-sized pieces of DNA using bacterial transformation

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19
Q

Vector

A

DNA source which can replicate and is used to carry foreign genes or DNA fragments

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20
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

A vector that has taken up a foreign piece of DNA

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21
Q

Restriction enzyme

A

an enzyme which binds to DNA at a specific base sequence and then cuts the DNA

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22
Q

Recognition site

A

specific base sequence on DNA where a restriction enzyme binds

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23
Q

DNA Library

A

a collection of cloned DNA fragments from a particular organism

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24
Q

Two types of libraries

A
  1. Genomic - contains DNA sequences from entire genome
  2. cDNA - contains DNA copies of mRNA molecules expressed
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25
Q

How does glucose prevent lac operon

A

Inducer exclusion, inhibition of an activator called CAP

reduces the level of cAMP

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26
Q

Inducer exclusion

A
  • transport of lactose into the cell is inhibited when glucose is high
  • lactose does not remove the repressor from the operator
  • when glucose is low, more lactose enters and the repressor is removed
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27
Q

Regulation of CAP

A

when glucose levels outside the cell are low, a CAP - cAMP complex stimulates RNA polymerase binding

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28
Q

Prokaryotes

A

a single-cell organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

absence of nuclear membrane and membranous organelles

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29
Q

Eubacteria

A

true bacteria

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30
Q

Archaebacteria

A

ancient bacteria

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31
Q

Glucose

A

is the main type of sugar in the blood and the main source of energy for the body’s cells.
catabolism - the breakdown of complex molecules-up-regulated or “induced” when substrate is available

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32
Q

Lactose

A

anabolism - synthesis of complex molecules from simple molecules. these are up-regulated when end product molecule is in short supply

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33
Q

Splicing enhancer

A

elements promote binding spliceosome to an otherwise weak splice site

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34
Q

Splicing activator

A

will bind to ensure that exon 2 is left in

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35
Q

Splicing silencer

A

elements prevent binding of spliceosome to a specific site

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36
Q

Splicing repressor

A

will bind to ensure that exon 2 is cut out as part of a larger intron

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37
Q

Stages of translation

A

initiation, elongation, termination

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38
Q

Genetic code

A
  • DNA stores genetic information as sequence of bases in the DNA strands
  • mRNA carries that information as RNA base sequence to ribosome outside the nucleus
  • Ribosome reads the genetic code and translates it to polypeptide sequence for protein synthesis
  • tRNAs bring in amino acids to ribosome
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39
Q

Start codon

A

the first codon in the transcribed mRNA that undergoes translation. AUG is a start codon

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40
Q

Stop codon

A

a sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or mRNA that signals a halt to protein synthesis in the cell. three stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA

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41
Q

Sense codon

A

each specify one amino acid and the ribosome decodes hundreds or thousands of these codons into a chain of amino acids to form a protein

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42
Q

Small subunit

A

responsible for the binding and the reading of mRNA during translation. (40s in eukaryotes) decodes genetic message

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43
Q

Large subunit

A

catalyses the key chemical event in protein synthesis, peptide bond formation. Contains the active site of the ribosome

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44
Q

Chromatin

A

the complex of DNA and proteins that comprise eukaryotic chromosomes

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45
Q

Two classes of chromatin proteins:

A
  1. Histones
  2. non-histone proteins
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46
Q

Central dogma of molecular biology

A

DNA replication, transcription, translation

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47
Q

DNA replication

A

makes DNA copies that are transmitted from cell to cell and from parent to offspring

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48
Q

Transcription

A

produces an RNA copy of a gene

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49
Q

Translation

A

produces a polypeptide using the information in mRNA

50
Q

DNA

A

regulatory sequence, promoter, terminator

51
Q

mRNA

A

Ribosome-binding site, start codon, sense codons, stop codon

52
Q

Template strand

A

The DNA sequence that can duplicate itself during mRNA synthesis. Does not directly code for a protein but complimentarily pairs with the code so it can be used as a template upon which to build mRNA with the correct code

53
Q

Coding strand

A

the DNA strand whose base sequence is similar to its primary trans script (RNA). serves as a template for producing complimentary RNA

54
Q

Steps of transcription

A

initiation, elongation, termination

55
Q

Leading strand

A

a single DNA strand that during DNA replication is replicated in the 3’ - 5’ direction

56
Q

Lagging strand

A

one of two strands of DNA found at the replication fork in the double helix. during DNA replication, it is replicated in the 5’ - 3’ direction

57
Q

Post translational regulation

A

the control of the levels of active proteins

58
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

when heterozygotes have an intermediate phenotype. When both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting in an intermediate or different phenotype

59
Q

Co-dominance

A

alleles have equal effects

60
Q

Penetrance

A

When not all individuals of the same genotype show the same phenotype

61
Q

Expressivity

A

when individuals of the same genotype show different degrees of the same phenotype

62
Q

Lethality

A

when alleles affect survival of the gamete or zygote; usually recessive mutations in essential genes will affect segregation ratios

63
Q

Pleiotropy

A

When a single gene affects multiple phenotypes

64
Q

Non-genetic effects & environment

A

when environmental factors effect gene expressivity

65
Q

Multi-gene effects & epistasis

A

when more than one gene affects a single phenotype

66
Q

Epistasis

A

non reciprocal interaction of non-allelic genes; one gene masks phenotypic expression of another

67
Q

Complete dominance

A

when the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele

68
Q

Dominant epistasis

A

complete dominance at both fine pairs; however, when one gene is dominant, it hides the phenotypes of the other gene. the expression of one dominant or recessive allele is masked by another dominant allele. 12:3:1 ration of fruit color in summer squash

69
Q

Initiation (in transcription)

A

the promoter functions as a recognition site for transcription factors. the transcription factors enable. RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter. Following binding, the DNA is denatured into a bubble known as the open complex

70
Q

Elongation/synthesis of the RNA transcript (in transcription)

A

RNA polymerase slides along the DNA in a n open complex to synthesize RNA

71
Q

Termination (in transcription)

A

a terminator is reached that causes RNA polymerase and the RNA transcript to dissociate from the DNA

72
Q

Galactose

A

a simple sugar belonging to simple carbohydrates which occur in D-form in lactose. Contributes to energy production and storage in several human tissues

73
Q

Operon

A

a functioning unit of DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter

74
Q

Operator

A

the DNA segment where the repressor molecule binds to the operon model

75
Q

Regulatory gene

A

a gene that regulates the expression of one or more structural genes by controlling the production of a protein (as a genetic repressor) which regulates their rate of transcription

76
Q

Tryptophan

A

an amino acid which is a constituent of most proteins. Helps make melatonin and serotonin in the body

77
Q

Negative gene regulation

A

the process of regulating gene expression by inhibiting the expression of that specific gene

78
Q

Positive gene regulation

A

the type of gene regulation that enables the expression of genes

79
Q

Polycistronic mRNA

A

an mRNA that encodes several proteins and is characteristic of many bacterial and chloroplast mRNAs

80
Q

Inducible system

A

one whose expression increases quantitatively in response to an enhancer, an inducer, or a positive regulator

81
Q

Repressible system

A

A regulatory system in which the product of a regulator gene (the repressor) blocks transcription of the operon only if it first reacts with an effector molecule

82
Q

B-galactosidase

A

an enzyme that cleaves the disaccharide lactose to produce galactose and glucose which then ultimately enter glycolysis. responsible to hydrolyze lactose

83
Q

Permease

A

a substance that catalyzes the transport of another substance across a plasma membrane

84
Q

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A

it is involved in the positive regulation of some catabolite-sensitive operons and it is required for the control of natural polarity in polycistronic operons

85
Q

CAP binding site

A

a positive regulatory site that is bound by catabolite activator protein (CAP)

86
Q

Nucleosome

A

a section of DNA that is wrapped around a core of proteins. the basic structural unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes

87
Q

Histone

A

a protein that provides structural support for a chromosome

88
Q

Acetylation

A

the process where an acetyl functional group is transferred from one molecule to another

89
Q

Phosphorylation

A

the attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule or an ion

90
Q

Methylation

A

a heritable epigenetic mark involving the covalent transfer of a methyl group to the C-5 position of the cytosine ring of DNA methyltransferases. when located in a gene promoter, DNA methylation typically acts to repress gene transcription

91
Q

Methyltransferase

A

enzymes that transfer a methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) to their substrates

92
Q

Non-coding RNAs

A

do not encode polypeptides. a special class of RNAs that do not get translated to form a functional protein. they are further divided into two other groups, small and long ncRNA

93
Q

Short non-coding RNAs

A

(<200 nucleotides) include microRNAs (miRNA), endogenous short interfering RNAs and germline-restricted piwi-interacting RNAs

94
Q

miRNA

A

a class of non-coding RNAs that play important roles in regulating gene expression

95
Q

siRNA

A

a double-stranded RNA molecule that is non-coding. one strand can complimentarily bind to and inactivate an mRNA

96
Q

shRNA

A

an artificial RNA molecule with a tight hairpin turn that can be used to silence target gene expression via RNA interference (RNAi)

97
Q

RISC

A

a multi protein complex that incorporates one strand of a small interfering RNA (siRNA) or micro RNA (miRNA)

98
Q

RNA interference

A

a simple and rapid method

99
Q

DICER

A

an evolutionarily conserved enzyme playing a central role in small RNA biogenesis and involved in a wide range of biological processes, from antiviral responses to regulation of gene expression

100
Q

DROSHA

A

functions as the initiator of miRNA biogenesis by cleaving pri-miRNA hairpins in the nucleus

101
Q

Restriction enzyme

A

a protein isolated from bacteria that cleaves DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known sequence at each end.

102
Q

Palindrome

A

a DNA or RNA sequence that reads the same in both directions

103
Q

Endonuclease

A

A group of enzymes that break the phosphodiester bond present within the polynucleotide chain of a DNA molecule

104
Q

Sticky end

A

DNA fragments cleaved by a restriction enzyme so that one strand is longer than the other.

105
Q

Restriction site

A

a sequence of approximately 6–8 base pairs of DNA that binds to a given restriction enzyme. These restriction enzymes, of which there are many, have been isolated from bacteria. Their natural function is to inactivate invading viruses by cleaving the viral DNA.

106
Q

Plasmid

A

a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from a cell’s chromosomal DNA. Plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells, and they also occur in some eukaryotes.

107
Q

Reverse transcriptase

A

also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into DNA.

108
Q

PCR

A

a laboratory technique for rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in greater detail.

109
Q

ZFIN

A

the database of genetic and genomic data for the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model organism.

110
Q

TALEN

A

artificial restriction enzymes and can cut DNA strands at any desired sequence, which makes them an attractive tool for genetic engineering.

111
Q

RNAi therapy

A

the biologic process by which RNA molecules induce sequence-specific inhibition of target gene expression or translation

112
Q

RNAi

A

double stranded RNA causes the silencing of mRNA

113
Q

NHEJ

A

a pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA

114
Q

HDR

A

a mechanism in cells to repair double-strand DNA lesions

115
Q

CRISPR

A

a technology that research scientists use to selectively modify the DNA of living organisms.

116
Q

CRISPR Cas9 system

A

defends against foreign invaders. provide an effective defense against bacteriophages, plasmids, and transposons

117
Q

PAM

A

A short DNA sequence, the protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM), is frequently used to mark proper target sites.

118
Q

Somatic gene therapy

A

transfer of a section of DNA to any cell of the body that doesn’t produce sperm or eggs. Effects of gene therapy will not be passed onto the patients children

119
Q

Germline gene therapy

A

transfer of a section of DNA to cells that produce eggs or sperm. Effects of gene therapy will be passed onto the patient’s children and subsequent generations

120
Q

Long non-coding RNAs

A

are ncRNA molecules that are longer than 200 nucleotides

121
Q

Operon

A

a group of two or more genes that are under the transcriptional control of a single promoter

122
Q

When tryptophan levels within the cell are very low…

A

top repressor cannot bind to the operator site. RNA polymerase transcribes the top operon and the cell express the genes required for the synthesis of tryptophan

Biology Final (1 decks)

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