Bio Final Flashcards
Review life’s organization ie from cell to organism
atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, species, population, community, ecosystem, biome
The three domains
Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya
Binomial name system
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. Binomial name is in italics and is genus and species. Genus can be abbreviated
Scientific Process
Scientific method- observations, hypothesis, prediction, experiment (with control groups and single variable), conclusion.
Review the Plasma membrane and how substances get into the cell (i.e.,
channels)
Acts as a boundary/gatekeeper around cell. Is made a phospholipid bilayer with numerous imbedded proteins. Also called fluid mosaic model.
Channel proteins- tunnel transport across entire membrane
Transport proteins- often combine with and help molecules and ions pass through
Receptor proteins- Allows a signal protein to bind to it. Creates cellular response
Enzymatic proteins - participate (speed up) metabolic processes
Junction proteins - assist in cell to cell adhesion and communication
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
Prokaryote- no membrane bound nucleus, DNA in nucleoid which is found in cytoplasm, can have a cell wall and ribosomes. Eukarotes are highly compartmentalized (organelles) and structured. They have a nucleus
How are bacteria structured
They are prokaryotes. Most pocesss a cell wall and some have a capsule. cyctoplasma is surrounded by a plasma membrane. Cytoplasm has enzymes (speed up reactions). DNA is in a single coil that’s in the nucleotoid. They have RNA. Some have a flagella
Briefly review the main organellesn(13)
Plasma membrane -Encloses the cytoplasm; regulates interactions with the external environment
Nucleus -Contains the genetic material (DNA); nucleolus is the site of ribosome formation
Ribosomes- Location where polypeptides and proteins are formed
Vesicles - Small sacs that move materials between organelles in the endomembrane system
Rough ER- Component of the endomembrane system that has ribosomes attached; synthesizes proteins
Smooth ER- Endomembrane system organelle where lipids and some carbohydrates are synthesized; detoxifies some chemicals
Golgi apparatus- Processing and packaging center
Lysosome- Vesicle that contains enzymes that break down incoming molecules and cellular components
Chloroplast- Site of photosynthesis and carbohydrate formation (not found in animals)
Mitochondrion- Site of cellular respiration and ATP synthesis
Cell wall- Layer of cellulose that supports cells (not found in animals)
Cytoskeleton- Internal framework of protein fibers; moves organelles and maintains cell shape
Flagella and cilia- Involved in moving the cell or moving materials along the surface of the cell
Vesicles and Vacuoles
Centrioles
Where does photosynthesis occur
Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts. The thylakoid space contains the pigments and the stroma has the enzymes that produce the carbs.
What is cellular respiration
Cellular respiration converts organic molecules into ATP adenosine triphosphate , the universal energy required by all living organisms. ATP happens in both aerobic and anaerobic environments. During cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to CO2, which we exhale. Oxygen (O2), which we breathe in, is reduced to H2O. When glucose is oxidized, energy is released.
four phases to convert glucose into ATP.
1) Glycolysis, occurs within the cytoplasm of the cell. the breakdown of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate, is a series of enzymatic reactions. Net gain of 2 ATP
Next phases depend on if O2 is present.
Aerobic-
Remaining stages take place Inside the Mitochondria.
Phases - the preparatory (prep) reaction is so named because it prepares the outputs of glycolysis (pyruvate molecules) for use in the citric acid cycle. -Per glucose molecule, the outputs are two CO2, two NADH, and two acetyl-CoA.
The Citric Acid Cycle
Acetyl groups enter the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions occurring in the mitochondrial matrix. During one turn of the cycle, oxidation results in two CO2, three NADH, and one FADH2. One turn also produces one ATP. There are two turns of the cycle per glucose molecule.
The Electron Transport Chain
The final stage of cellular respiration involves the electron transport chain located in the cristae of the mitochondria. The chain is a series of electron carriers that accept high-energy electrons (e–) from NADH and FADH2 and pass electrons along until they are finally low-energy electrons received by oxygen, which combines with H+ to produce water.
Difference between photosynthesis and cellular respiration
During photosynthesis, the chloroplasts in plants capture solar energy and use it to convert water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates, which serve as food for themselves and for other organisms. During cellular respiration, mitochondria complete the breakdown of carbohydrates and use the released energy to build ATP molecules.
Describe different types of bonds
Ionic bonding (NaCl) is when an atom gives away a bond and the other takes it. (one keeps a shell, one loses). The molecule becomes charged. (unbalanced). Covalent bonding they share an ion. Are balanced.
Who is Gregor Mendell and what did he do with peas?
Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who, experiments in the 1860s, developed several important laws on patterns of inheritance. 7 varieties true breeding peas. did crosses, punnett square
Law of Dominance
Law of Segregation
Law of Independent Assortment
Punnett Square
In a Punnett square, all possible types of sperm are lined up vertically, and all possible types of eggs are lined up horizontally, or vice versa, so that every possible combination of gametes the offspring may inherit occurs within the square.
Dihybrid punnett square
- ———-AB Ab aB ab
- AB* AABB AAbB aABB aAbB
- Ab* AABb AAbb aABb aAbb
- aB* AaBB AabB aaBB aabB
- ab* AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
The phenotype ratio predicted for dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1. Of the sixteen possible allele combinations:
Nine combinations produce offspring with both dominant phenotypes.
Three combinations each produce offspring with one dominant and one recessive phenotype.
One combination produces a double recessive offspring.
Genotype vs phenotype
The word phenotype refers to the physical appearance of the individual. An organism’s phenotype is mostly determined by its genotype. The word genotype refers to the combination of alleles in a cell or organism. Genotype may be indicated by letters or by short, descriptive phrases
Sex Linked
, both males and females have 23 pairs of chromosomes; 22 pairs are called autosomes, and 1 pair is the sex chromosomes. The much shorter Y chromosome contains fewer than 200 genes, and most of these genes are concerned with sex differences between men and women. In contrast, the X chromosome is quite large and contains nearly 2,000 genes, most of which have nothing to do with the gender of the individual. By tradition, the term X-linked refers to such genes carried on the X chromosome.
DNA Strand replication
During DNA replication (S phase of cell cycle), the two DNA strands, which are held together by hydrogen bonds, are separated and each old strand of the parent molecule serves as a template for a new strand in a daughter molecule (Fig. 11.6). This process is referred to as semiconservative, since one of the two old strands is conserved, or present, in each daughter molecule. the DNA double helix must separate and unwind. This is accomplished by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides, then unwinding the helix structure using an enzyme called helicase. At this point, new nucleotides are added to the parental template strand. Nucleotides, ever present in the nucleus, will complementary base-pair onto the now single-stranded parental strand. The addition of the new strand is completed using an enzyme complex called DNA polymerase. The daughter strand is synthesized by DNA polymerase in a 5′–3′ direction, as shown in Figure 11.6. Any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone are sealed by the enzyme DNA ligase.synthesized by DNA polymerase in a 5′–3′ direction, as shown in Figure 11.6. Any breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone are sealed by the enzyme DNA ligase.
Difference DNA and RNA
SIMILARITIES OF DNA AND RNA Both are nucleic acids. Both are composed of nucleotides. Both have a sugar-phosphate backbone. Both have four different types of bases.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA Found in nucleus Genetic material Sugar is deoxyribose. Bases are A, T, C, G. Double-stranded DNA is transcribed (to give a variety of RNA molecules).
RNA Found in nucleus and cytoplasm Helper to DNA Sugar is ribose. Bases are A, U, C, G. Single-stranded mRNA is translated (to make proteins).
Types of RNA
The three main forms are messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the DNA message to the ribosomes; transfer RNA (tRNA), which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs; and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which is found in the ribosomes.
Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of stages that take place between the time a new cell has arisen from the division of the parent cell to the point when it has given rise to two daughter cells. It consists of interphase, the time when the cell performs its usual functions; a period of nuclear division called mitosis; and division of the cytoplasm, or cytokinesis.
Interphase- DNA replication occurs in the middle of interphase and serves as a way to divide interphase into three phases: G1, S, and G2. G1 is the phase before DNA replication, and G2 is the phase following DNA synthesis. Originally, G stood for “gap,” but now that we know how metabolically active the cell is, it is better to think of G as standing for “growth.”
M Phase= Cell division occurs during the M phase, which encompasses both division of the nucleus and division of the cytoplasm. The type of nuclear division associated with the cell cycle is called mitosis, which accounts for why this stage is called the M phase.
prophase Mitotic phase during which chromatin condenses, so that chromosomes appear. Chromosomes are scattered.
metaphase Mitotic phase during which chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator.
anaphase Mitotic phase during which daughter chromosomes move toward the poles of the spindle.
telophase Mitotic phase during which daughter cells are located at each pole.
Mitosis and 4 phases
We will describe mitosis as having four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
prophase Mitotic phase during which chromatin condenses, so that chromosomes appear. Chromosomes are scattered.
metaphase Mitotic phase during which chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator.
anaphase Mitotic phase during which daughter chromosomes move toward the poles of the spindle.
telophase Mitotic phase during which daughter cells are located at each pole.
Darwin
Came up with theory of evolution from his trip on the Beagle where he was a naturalist. He studied the finches of the Galapogos islands. He proposed the idea of natural selection.
Natural Selection (steps)
Mechanism of evolution caused by environmental selection of organisms most fit to reproduce; results in adaptation to the environment.
The members of a population have heritable
variations
The population produces more offspring than the resources of an environment can support.
The individuals that have favorable traits survive and reproduce to a greater extent than those that lack these traits.
Over time, the proportion of a favorable trait increases in the population, and the population becomes adapted to the environment.
Types of natural selection
Stabilizing selection occurs when an intermediate phenotype is favored
Directional selection occurs when an extreme phenotype is favored and the frequency distribution curve shifts in that direction
In disruptive selection, two or more extreme phenotypes are favored over any intermediate phenotype. Therefore, disruptive selection favors polymorphism, the occurrence of different forms in a population of the same species.
Antibiotic Resistence
Directional selection. Some bacteria survive. The more antibiotics used the more bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics survive (And those that aren’t die). Therefor those bacteria become selected for.
Causes of microevolution (4)
genetic mutation, gene flow, nonrandom mating, and genetic drift
Genetic mutation - change in genes
Gene flow, also called gene migration, is the movement of alleles among populations by migration of breeding individuals
Nonrandom mating- Random mating occurs when individuals select mates and pair by chance, not according to their genotypes or phenotypes (includes bottleneck and founder)
Genetic drift refers to changes in the allele frequencies of a gene pool due to chance. This mechanism of evolution is called genetic drift because allele frequencies “drift” over time.
Virus
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, because they can reproduce only inside a living cell (obligate means “restricted to a specific form”). They lack the ability to acquire nutrients, or to use energy. They are incredibly small and can be produced in a labratory.
has at least two parts: an outer capsid, composed of protein subunits, and an inner core containing its genetic material, which may be either DNA or RNA
Viruses are specific to a particular host cell because a spike, or some portion of the capsid, adheres in a lock-and-key manner to a specific molecule (called a receptor) on the host cell’s outer surface.Once inside a host cell, the viral genome takes over the metabolic machinery of the host cell. In large measure, the virus uses this machinery, including the host’s enzymes, ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and ATP, to reproduce itself.
Legumes and bacteria
Legume plants, such as soybean and peas, have roots colonized by bacteria that are able to take up atmospheric nitrogen and reduce it to a form suitable for incorporation into organic compounds (Fig. 20.17a). The bacteria live in root nodules (see Fig. 17.13), and the plant supplies the bacteria with carbohydrates, while the bacteria in turn furnish the plant with nitrogen compounds.
Types of Archaea
The archaea (domain Archaea) are the second type of prokaryote. The following are some characteristics of archaea:
They appear to be more closely related to the eukarya than to the bacteria.
They do not have peptidoglycan in their cell walls, as do the bacteria, and they share more biochemical characteristics with the eukarya than do bacteria.
Some are well known for living under harsh conditions, such as anaerobic marshes (methanogens), salty lakes (halophiles), and hot sulfur springs (thermoacidophiles).
Five evolutionary stages of plants
Land plants arose from a common green algal ancestor. The evolution of land plants is marked by five significant events: (1) protection of the embryo; (bryophytes- mosses) (2) evolution of vascular tissue whihch have sylem and phloem;(lycophytes) (3) evolution of leaves (microphylls and megaphylls - ferns); (4) (gymnosperms) evolution of the seed; and (5) evolution of the flower. (angiosperms)
Four major tissue types
Epithelial tissue (epithelium) covers body surfaces and lines body cavities.
Connective tissue binds and supports body parts.
Muscular tissue moves the body and its parts.
Except for nervous tissue, each type of tissue is subdivided into even more types
Nervous tissue receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses.
Muscle tissue
The three types of vertebrate muscles are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth (involuntary).
Types of connective tissue
In connective tissue, cells are separated by a matrix that contains fibers (e.g., collagen fibers). The four types are
Loose fibrous connective tissue, organs and including adipose tissue
Dense fibrous connective tissue (tendons and ligaments)
Cartilage and bone; the matrix of cartilage is more flexible than that of bone
Blood; the matrix is a liquid called plasma, and the cells are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (cell fragments)
Components of neurons
Each neuron has dendrites (extension), a cell body (receives signal from dendrite), and an axon (axons are extensions that conduct away)
Open and close circulatory systems
The circulatory system is responsible for supplying the cells of an animal with oxygen and nutrients and removing carbon dioxide and other waste materials.
Some invertebrates do not have a circulatory system, because their body plan allows each cell to exchange molecules with the external environment.
Other invertebrates do have a circulatory system that uses a heart to move the blood.
In an open circulatory system, the fluid, called hemolymph, is not confined to the blood vessels but accumulates in cavities called sinuses, or collectively, the hemocoel.
In a closed circulatory system, or cardiovascular system, the blood remains within the blood vessels.
Cardiovascular system (compare brief)
The heart has a right and a left side separated by a septum. Each side has an atrium (receives blood) and a ventricle (pumps blood). Atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves keep the blood moving in the correct direction. Arteries move blood away from the heart; veins move blood toward the heart.
Fishes have a one-circuit pathway of circulation because the heart, with a single atrium and ventricle, pumps blood only to the gills.
The cardiovascular system of other vertebrates consists of a pulmonary circuit (moves blood to lungs) and a systemic circuit (moves blood to tissues). Amphibians have two atria but a single ventricle. Crocodilians, birds, and mammals, including humans, have a heart with two atria and two ventricles, in which O2-rich blood is kept separate from O2-poor blood.
Respiratory System
To reach the lungs, air moves from the nasal cavities through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, which end in the alveoli of the lungs.
Breathing: inspiration (entrance of air into the lungs) and expiration (exit of air from the lungs)
External exchange of gases between the air and the blood within the lungs
Internal exchange of gases between blood and interstitial fluid and the exchange of gases between the cells and interstitial fluid
Urinary System
Kidneys: Produce urine
Ureters: Take urine to the bladder
Urinary bladder: Stores urine
Urethra: Releases urine to the outsideExcretion of nitrogenous wastes, such as urea and uric acid
Maintenance of the water-salt balance of the blood
Maintenance of the acid-base balance of the blood
Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic system (nerves)
The parasympathetic division includes a few cranial nerves (e.g., the vagus nerve) and axons that arise from the last portion of the spinal cord. The parasympathetic division, sometimes called the “housekeeper division,” promotes all the internal responses we associate with a relaxed state.
Axons of the sympathetic division arise from portions of the spinal cord. The sympathetic division is especially important during emergency situations and is associated with “fight or flight.
Plant tissue types
Epidermal tissue forms the outer protective covering of a plant.
Ground tissue fills the interior of a plant and helps carry out the functions of a particular organ.
Vascular tissue transports water and nutrients in a plant and provides support.
Early Embryonic development
Fertilization
Cleavage, which occurs in the uterine tube is the rapid cell division without growth. (Tightly packed cells are call a morula.
Next is the formulation of the blastocyst. A fluid filled sac of cells called a blastocoel. Inner cells distinct from outer blastula.
Embryo implants in the uterine lining
Still part of The blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium.
Gastrulation - three germ layers form: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
Organ formation- notochord and neuralation
Direct (4) vs indirect values biodiversity (6)
The direct values of biodiversity are:
Medicinal value (medicines derived from living organisms)
Agricultural value (crops derived from wild plants)
Biological pest controls and animal pollinators
Consumptive use values (food production)
Indirect Values of Biodiversity
Biodiversity in ecosystems contributes to:
The functioning of biogeochemical cycles (water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and others)
Waste disposal (through the action of decomposers and the ability of natural communities to purify water and take up pollutants)
Fresh water provision through the water biogeochemical cycle
Prevention of soil erosion, which occurs naturally in intact ecosystems
Climate regulation (plants take up carbon dioxide)
Ecotourism (human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem)
Patterns of population growth
The patterns of population growth are dependent on (1) the biotic potential of the species and (2) the availability of resources. The two fundamental patterns of population growth are exponential growth and logistic growth.
Exponential- An exponential pattern of population growth results in a J-shaped curve (Fig. 30.12). This growth pattern can be likened to compound interest at a bank: The more your money increases, the more interest you will get
Logistic - As resources decrease ( limited food supply, accumulation of waste products, increased competition, and predation—that prevent populations from achieving their biotic potential. ), population growth levels off and a pattern of population growth called logistic growth occurs. Logistic growth results in an S-shaped growth curve
Opportunistic vs Equilibrium species
Opportunistic species - Opportunistic species tend to exhibit exponential growth. The members of the population are small in size, mature early, have a short life span, and provide limited parental care for a great number of offspring (Fig. 30.19a). Density-independent factors tend to regulate the population size, which is large enough to survive an event that threatens to annihilate it.
Equilibrium species exhibit logistic population growth, with the population size remaining close to or at the carrying capacity (Fig. 30.19b). Resources are relatively scarce, and the individuals best able to compete—those with phenotypes best suited to the environment—have the largest number of offspring. They allocate energy to their own growth and survival and to the growth and survival of a small number of offspring. Therefore, they are fairly large, are slow to mature, and have a fairly long life span.
Two Types of Succession
Ecologists define two types of ecological succession: primary and secondary (Fig. 31.4). Primary succession starts where soil has not yet formed. For example, hardened lava flows and the scraped bedrock that remains following a glacial retreat are subject to primary succession. Secondary succession begins, for example, in a cultivated field that is no longer farmed, where soil is already present. With both primary and secondary succession, a progression of species occurs over time.
autotroph vs heterotroph
autotroph Organism that can capture energy and synthesize organic molecules from inorganic nutrients.
heterotroph Organism that cannot synthesize organic compounds from inorganic substances and therefore must take in organic nutrients.
