Bio Chem Flashcards
1
Q
What is an Atom made up of? Name the 3 subatomic particles and give their charge and weight.
A
Protons weighing 1 with a + charge, Neutrons weighing 1 with no charge & Electrons weighing 0 with a negative charge
2
Q
Name 4 major elements in the human body?
A
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen
3
Q
What happens if an atom’s outer shell is not full or it looses an electron?
A
It becomes reactive e.g free radicals
4
Q
What determines the chemical properties of an Atom?
A
Protons and Electrons - Neutrons only add mass not charge
5
Q
What does the Atomic number symbolise?
A
How many Protons and therefore how many electrons the atom has
6
Q
On the periodic table what do the elements in column 1 have in common?
A
They all react with water
7
Q
How are the Halogen elements significant to our health?
A
Iodine is important for Thyroid health. However Fluoride and Chlorine are stronger elements and can, if present in the body, enter the thyroid and block the Iodine preventing the T3 & T4 formation which in turn can cause Hypothyroidism
8
Q
How do you work out the subatomic particles within an element?
A
The Atomic Number (the top number) is the amount of Protons and Electrons. The Mass number (longer number at the bottom) is the amount of Protons + Neutrons
9
Q
What is an Isotope?
A
An atom with a different number of neutrons in the neucleus. These effect the mass of the element not the charge
10
Q
What is the cause of radioactivity?
A
A large imbalance between the Protons and the Neutrons, causing the Atom to become unstable
11
Q
Name 2 types of radioactivity used in medicine?
A
Radiotherapy & the breath test for H-Pylori
12
Q
what are “inert” atoms?
A
Elements with the perfect number of electrons in their outer shell so they do not easily react with other atoms
13
Q
What is “Ionic Bonding”?
A
When an atom gives or receives an electron
14
Q
What is “covalent bonding”
A
When an atom shares an electron with another atom
15
Q
what does Ca2+ signify?
A
Calcium has lost 2 electrons and now has a positive charge
16
Q
What is an ion?
A
When an atom has lost or gained an electron it becomes an ion
17
Q
What is Cl-
A
Chlorine has gained an electron making it a negative charge
18
Q
Why does Sodium always give away it’s electron?
A
Sodium only has 1 electron in its outer shell therefore it is easier for it to give away an electron (rather than gain 7) which then becomes Na+
19
Q
Name 2 different types of covalent bonds?
A
Non-polar and polar covalent bonds
20
Q
Give an example of a polar covalent bond?
A
Oxygen & Hydrogen. Oxygen pulls the electrons towards itself resulting in a negatively charged area over the oxygen and a positively charged area over the Hydrogen. This is called a hydrogen bond
21
Q
What creates surface tension and ability to dissolve so many different things in water?
A
Hydrogen bonds. The negative charged oxygens are attracted to the positively charged hydrogens of the next molecule
22
Q
what kind of molecules dissolve easily in water?
A
Hydrophilic molecules likes alcohol
23
Q
What kind of bonds are hydrophobic molecules
A
non polar covalent bonds such as fats
24
Q
Give the chemical symbol for Potassium
A
K
25
Give the chemical symbol for Hydrogen
H
26
What is the chemical symbol Mg
Magnesium
27
Give an example of an Isotope?
Carbon 14 has 6 protons and 8 Neutrons
28
How many electrons are needed to fill an electron shell?
2 in the first shell and 8 in everyone after that
29
Name the 4 most electronegative elements?
Oxygen, Fluoride, Chlorine & Nitrogen
30
Give an example of a polar molecule
salt
31
What is a universal solvent?
Water
32
What is an electrolyte and what does it do?
when an ionic compound dissolves in water. It conducts electricity
33
Name 7 key electrolytes in the body
Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, Magnesium, Phosphate & bicarb
34
Give 3 reasons electrolytes are important within the body
Conduction of electricity is essential for nerve and muscle function.
They exert Osmotic pressure, important for water balance.
Some play important role in acid-base balance
35
What is an acid?
a substance that releases a high amount of H+ ions when dissolved in water
36
What is considered neutral in a pH scale?
Water with a pH of 7. Anything lower than that is considered acid
37
What is the pH range of blood
7.35-7.45
38
What is the pH range of stomach acid?
2-3
39
What happens to the pH of fruit and veg when digested?
Often fruit and veg is considered acid before consumption however once metabolised by the body and intestinal bacteria they become alkaline. They also contain potassium, Magnesium and calcium which contribute to their alkaline effect.
40
Explain the pH effects of Dairy on the body
Dairy is considered more acidic because of the higher protein/sulphur amino acid content. These increase sulphuric acid formation which then disrupts blood pH drawing more calcium from the bones & increasing calcium loss in urine
41
Name 4 acidic foods
Dairy, red meat, processed foods & refined sugars also being sedentary is also acidic
42
Name a disease that thrives in an acidic environment
cancer
43
What are the best ways to measure tissue pH?
Due to blood always remaining within the homeostasis limits, the best way to test the tissue pH is using saliva or urine
44
How to test urine pH
Urinate onto a strip during your 2nd urination of the morning. about an hour after waking. Measure the pH midstream and afterwards hold the strip horizontal
45
How to do a saliva pH test
Wash your mouth upon waking with plain water. Wait for about 10 minutes and then spit onto some pH paper
46
What pH are you aiming for when testing for tissue pH?
You are aiming for slightly alkaline of neutral pH. Many cancer patients have a pH of 4.5 - 6. pH is a close reflection of what an individual has eaten
47
What is a catalyst
a Catalyst or enzyme speeds up reactions by lowering the activation energy required. This means reactions can happen at a lower temperature.
48
Name a catalyst or enzyme within the body?
HMG-CoA reductase.
49
Name an inhibitor often used and explain its role.
HMG CoA reductase inhibitor is a statin prescribed to reduce cholesterol but it also blocks CoQ10 from being produced also.
50
What is Hydrolysis?
Is the chemical reaction when water is used to break down a molecule into smaller pieces
51
What is dehydration synthesis?
When water is formed as the waste product of a reaction, usually takes place when larger molecules are being made like carbohydrates
52
What is the most important buffer system in the blood stream?
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) buffer system which mops up excess acidity
53
Explain the Bicarbonate buffer system?
Catalysed by carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide from cellular respiration reacts with water in the blood to form carbonic acid which rapidly dissociates to form bicarbonate & Hydrogen ion. This is reversable at anytime
CO2+H2O=H2CO3=HCO3- + H+
54
The effects of strenuous exercise
Strenuous exercise is acidic. When strenuous exercise takes place lactic acid is formed, the body then increases the rate of carbon dioxide exhaled through the lungs
55
What role do kidneys play in the buffer system?
Kidneys produce the HCO3- they can also excrete excess H+ ions
56
What is oxidation
Oxidation is removal of electrons from an atom or molecule (think oil rig)
57
what is reduction
reduction is gaining an electron (think oil rig)
58
Explain free radicals
Free radicals try to stabilise themselves by stealing electrons from other molecules causing OXIDATION, this causes a chain reaction due to the next molucule needing to stabile itself. Free radicals can also damage DNA and can result in cancerous changes
59
Name 3 diseases that have been linked to oxidative damage
cancer, atherosclerosis, fibromyalgia, neurodegenerative diseases
60
What can we do to reduce the effects of free radicals on clients
reduce the exposure - environmental eg. pollution, smoking, strenuous exercise, x-rays, alcohol, sunlight. Whilst optimising the anti-oxidants Beta-carotene, vit c, quercetin, vit e, Glutathione Peroxidase
61
How do anti-oxidants work
They donate an electron to the free radical to stabilise it without being damaged themselves
62
What does an Amino Acid structure consist of?
An Amino group, and R group and a Carboxyl group
63
What are Esters
The functional group found in fats
64
Where do you find Phosphate functional groups
ATP
65
What elements are carbohydrates made of?
C-H-O
66
How many Carbon atoms do monosaccharides have?
3-7 C atoms
67
Name 5 Monosaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Deoxyribose
Ribose
68
What are Disaccharides?
2 monosaccharides joined together
69
Name 3 Disaccharides and what they are made of?
Succrose - glucose + Fructose
Lactose - glucose + galactose
Maltose - glucose + glucose
70
What are polysaccharides?
betweem 10-100 monosaccharides joined together thro dehydration
71
Give 3 examples of polysaccharides
Glycogen
Starch
Cellulose
72
what do monosaccharides all have in common?
they all end in ose
73
What kind of bond do Disaccharides have?
A Glycosidic Bond, formed by dehydration synthesis
74
What happens if we add water to a Disaccharide?
it comes apart using hydrolysis
75
What is table sugar?
Sucrose - glucose +fructose
76
How is Maltose formed?
during hydrolysis of starch
77
What is the most common type of polysaccharide in the body?
glycogen
78
Give an example of a polysaccharide?
pasta
79
What kind of carbs are found in pasta, bread & rice
starch
80
What is the difference between Amylose + Amylopectin
Amylopectin is highly branched leaving a larger surface area for digestion it is therefore broken down quickly and has a quicker blood sugar rise and therefore a higher rise in insulin. Amylose is a straight chain and therefore digested more slowly. Some resistant starch ends up in the large intestine = food source for bacteria
81
Glycogen - where is it made?
primarily the muscles and liver
82
What is the difference between glycogen made in the liver and the muscles?
Glycogen made in the liver is a short term energy used to help maintain blood sugar levels, glycogen made by the muscles is only used by the muscles
83
Where is cellulose found?
in the structural wall of plants. We do not have the enzymes to break it down. It acts as fibre which assists in the movement of materials through the intestines
84
What is the function of Carbohydrates
Primary fuel for energy production & provide a limited storage form of energy (think glycogen in fasting)
85
Name 5 functions of Cellulose/fibre
Needed for proper bowel function
Protects against cardiovascular disease
Protects against diabetes
Increases satiety & aids weight-loss
Protects against colorectal cancer
86
How are carbs digested?
Salivary amylase is produced when chewing food to start breaking down the carbs. This is then neutralised by the stomach acid. Pancreatic amylase is produced by the pancreas breaking it into disaccharide units, then the brush border enzymes in the small intestine digests it further.
87
What are lipoproteins
Lipids bond to a protein to help them move around the body like a taxi - this makes them more soluble. The lipoproteins contain the triglyceride & cholesterol internally
88
Name 4 functions of fats/triglycerides
Source of energy
store of excess calories
Insulation
Protection of body parts and organs
89
Why is saturated fat a solid
the fatty acids are very straight which means they can line up closely to each other
90
Describe a monosaturated fat
a monosaturated fat contains a double covalent bond between 2 carbons forcing the molecule into a bent configuration
91
Are monosaturated fats liquid or solid at room temp
liquid because they cant pack close together
92
Give an example of a monosaturated fat
olive oil
93
Give an example of a saturated fat
coconut oil
94
describe a polyunsaturated fat
they have more than 1 double covalent bond in the carbon chain giving them a kinked look.
95
Are polyunsaturated fats liquid or solid at room temp?
liquid
96
Give an example of a polyunsaturated fat
sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, veg oil
97
How do you identify an Omega 3 fatty acid
the double bond is 3 carbons up from the end of the chain
98
How do you identify an Omega 6 fatty acid?
The double bond is 6 carbons up from the end of the chain.
99
Describe a cis configuration
when the H atoms are on the same side of the double bond. Nearly all fats in nature have a cis configuration.
100
Describe a trans configuration
when the H atoms are on the opposite sides of the double bonds
101
what are the benefits of cis fats over trans
cis fats make cell membranes more flexible. Trans fats stiffen the cell membranes and are prone to oxidative damage. they make cell membranes leaky
102
Name the 3 types of lipoproteins?
Very low density Lipoproteins
low density Lipoproteins
High density proteins
103
Name the 2 families of essential fatty acids
Omega 3 & Omega 6
104
What two types of fats are in Omega 3's
ALA - a linolenic acid
EPA & DHA
105
what foods have ALA in them
flax seeds
walnuts
green leafy veg
106
what foods have EPA & DHA in them
oily fish
107
Name the 3 types of fat within Omega 6
LA -Linoleic Acid
GLA - gamma Linolenic acid
AA - Arachidonic acid
108
Give examples of Linoleic Acid and which Omega group does it fall under
Omega 6
veg oils and most nuts and seeds
109
Give examples of GLA and which Omega group does it fall under
Omega 6
Borage oil, evening primrose oil
110
Give examples of AA and which omega group does it fall
Omega 6
meat dairy and eggs
111
what are the functions of essential fatty acids (there are 10 listed)?
1)Fluidity & structure of cell membranes
2)Synthesis of Prostaglandins
3)Help to form Haemoglobin
4)support the production of digestive enzymes
5)Help generate electric currents & keep heart rate regular
6)Needed by tissues of the brain, retina, adrenal glands & testes.
7)Help balance immune system & prevent allergies
8)proper nerve transmission especially in the brain
9)Help make lubicants for joints
10) Help transport cholesterol in the blood
112
How do Polyunsaturated fats become free radicals?
electrons can be lost when they are heated. It then further reacts with the oxygen in the air over the cooking pan. Radical formation is accelerated through light, heat & Oxygen
113
What oil should you cook with for high heat?
Saturated fats - organic coconut oil which can be used at higher temp. Ghee
Avocado oil
114
What should you cook with for medium heat?
all the high heat oils plus butter and olive oil
115
how should you store oils
tight lid, cool, dark place - dark bottles are best
116
what is the role of VLDL?
carry newly synthesised triglycerides from Liver to adipose tissue (if high a sign of over eating)
117
what is the role of LDL
carry cholesterol from liver to cells - needed for cell repair, cell membrane & synthesise sex & adrenal hormones
118
what is the role of HDL
Collect cholesterol from the body's tissues and bring it back to the liver
119
what does the word Amphiphatic mean
it is soluable on one side and not on the other (a phospholipid)
120
What are steroids and what are they used for?
They are lipids formed from cholesterol. they are formed of 4 rings of carbon atoms joined together at the base and are used to create hormones eg oestrogen, testosterone, cortisol etc
121
what is meant by an isomer?
two types of the same atom - they have a different mass number
122
where is glycogen stored?
theliver
123
What elements are proteins formed from?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen
124
what are amino acids made up of?
a carboxyl group/acid, an amino group and a side chain (R group) that determines its characteristics
125
Amino acids are joined together by what?
dehydration synthesis creating a peptide bond
126
What is a dipeptide?
the bond formed between 2 amino acids
127
What is a tripeptide?
the bond formed between 3 amino acids
128
describe Aspartame
a harmful dipeptide, not found in nature and is a neurotoxin and manufactured to become an artificial sweetener
129
What is glutathione?
a powerful tripeptide antioxidant containing the amino acids L-Cysteine, L-glutamate & Glycine. Cysteine is the amino acid often limiting glutathione production. Cysteine foods incl. legumes, sunflower seeds and eggs
130
Why is the pH of surrounding fluid of amino acids important?
Amino acids with acidic side chains can release H ions depending on the fluid, Amino acids with basic side chains can bind to H ions depending on the surrounding fluids. therefore the fluid affects the 3d structure and therefore its function
131
describe a Non-polar amino acid
As they are hydrophobic they fold up in a watery environment so they are on the inside of the protein structure - these incl. tryptophan
132
Describe Polar amino acids
when folded up in a watery environment they like to be on the outside of the protein structure - these incl. tyrosine
133
Functions of a protein (11)
Structure of body tissues e.g. collagen
Movement e.g. actin and myosin fibres in muscles
Carrier molecules e.g. haemoglobin
Storage Molecules e.g. ferritin (iron)
Fluid Balance in the blood (albumin)
Enzymes (for reactions)
Hormones (insulin)
Immune function (antibodies)
Clotting mechanisms (clotting factors)
Alternative energy source
cell membrane proteins (receptors)
134
How are proteins denatured and what is the impact of this?
Heat & pH changes (think cooking eggs or lemon juice on fish)
Heavy metals (lead & mercury) - these damage proteins such as hormones, antibodies and enzymes. Denatured proteins no longer function correctly as lock and key shape has changed.
135
Name 2 natural chelating agents for heavy metals
chlorella and coriander (coriander water)
136
The peptide bonds between amino acids were formed by hydration synthesis, how are these bonds broken?
Hydrolysis reaction
137
What happens in the mouth with regards to proteins
they are mechanically broken down, increasing the surface area for the enzymes to work on (however the chemical digestion begins in the stomach with pepsin)
138
what is pepsinogen and where is it found?
Pepsinogen is released by gastric chief cells. It is the inactive form of pepsin. Its converted to pepsin by HCL
139
What pH should pepsin be
pH2 is critical for good protein digestion
140
Where do Pancreatic juices come from and what triggers them?
they are triggered as the chyme enters the small intestine by the release of hormone CCK. They are released by the pancreas
141
What is in pancreatic juices?
proteases called trypsin and chymotrypsin
142
What happens to proteins in the small intestines?
they are further broken down into tripeptides & dipeptides and single amino acids by pancreatic juices and brush border enzymes. Amino acids are then absorbed into the blood
143
Name 2 Nucleic Acids
deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
144
What do Nucleic Acids consist of?
phosphate group, sugar & nitrogenous base
145
How long is a DNA molecule if unravelled
2m
146
What is RNA used for?
it copies specific sub-sections of DNA called genes and translates it into proteins.
147
How many Nucleotide bases (amino acids) does DNA have and what are their names
4
Adenine (A) - a purine
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) - a purine
Thymine (T)
purines are metabolised to form uric acid & in excess can crystallise in joints and cause gout
148
which nucleotides pair together?
Adenine & thymine
Cytosine & guanine
149
What kind of bonds are within dna
Hydrogen bonds in the middle of the ladder & the covalent bonds on the outside of the ladder
150
explain transcription and translation
a molecule of mRNA copies the recipe in DNA - this is transcription. The mRNA then travels to a ribosome where it is read. The ribosome then produces the protein coded for - this is translation
151
what are telomeres
The end sections of chromosomes. The lengths shorten as cells and tissues age.
152
What factors can accelerate the aging process
stress, poor nutrition, poor sleep, chemical agents, lack of exercise, and negative thoughts
153
What herb can support the shortening of telomeres and healthy aging
Gotu kola
154
What are the consequence of a mutation within a DNA sequence?
a mutation can cause a change in the sequence of amino acids in the protein, this changes the shape and therefore the functionality of the protein.
155
give an example of a gene mutation
sickle cell anaemia or Haemophilia (assoc with clotting factor 8 or 9) or cancer - effects cell division
156
what organ makes many different enzymes involved in breaking down toxins
the liver
157
what can we do to influence whether our genes take a mutated form
be kind to our liver to help detoxification, Good intake of nutrients such as Vit A, D, EFA & Zinc, lots of fibre - effecting hormone levels through metabolites created when intestinal flora feed on the fibre. non acidic environment
158
What environment would promote pathological gene expression
lack of oxygen, chronic stress, radiation, vaccine and drug toxins, junk food
159
Future Q - why might an individual eating a rich betacarotene diet be low in vit A?
Genetics?
160
Future Q - Why might a person getting good sunlight exposure and eating vit d rich diet be low in vit D
Genetics?
161
What is homocysteine assoc with?
heart disease & dementia
162
what are the consequences of a MTHFR mutation?
MTHFR is an enzyme necessary for converting folate(B9) into methylfolate - used for metabolism of homocysteine. People with this mutation therefore have high levels of Homocysteine and benefit from taking methylfolate (already activated)
163
as well as methylation being connected to the MTHFR gene what else is it a process of
methylation is required for removing toxic metals such as mercury from the body
164
what does the suffix "ase" usually signify
enzymes usually end in "ase" such as protease, lipase
165
what are substrates
the molecules at the beginning of enzyme reactions
166
name two ingredients or co-factors needed for enzymes to work
zinc is needed for alcohol dehydrogenase
selenium is required for livers ability to produce glutathione peroxidase.
167
Explain substrate concentration
bums on seats....theres only a certain number of seats. e.g. if lots of omega 6 and small amount of omega 3's are eaten as they are converted using the same enzyme the Omega 6 will occupy all the active sites and the omega 3 will not be converted - hence why the correct ratio of 6 & 3 are important
168
what pH is needed for Salivery Amylase to be its correct shape?
7
169
Once swallowed what happens to the salivery amylase?
With the pH in the stomach of 2-3, amino acids in the amylase pick up the protons from the stomach acid, this changes the shape of the amylase rendering it inactive
170
What pH is good for pepsin?
2
171
what is the effect of temperature on enzymes
At high temperatures enzymes work faster but too hot and it wont work (denatured) a fever works by speeding up the immune reactions in the body but shouldnt go above 40c
172
Name the digestive enzymes
Salivary Amylase
Gastric lipase and pepsinogen (pepsin)
Pancreatic Amylase, Pancreatic Lipase and Pancreatic proteases
Sucrase, Maltase & Lactase (in the brush border)
173
How does overeating impair digestion?
over eating taxes our enzyme production and eventually we don't have enough to meet the demand and then cannot absorb our nutrients. It is also important not to drink whilst eating.
174
what factors effect digestive enzyme output?
over eating - reduces the amount of enzyme available, prolonged stress and nutritional deficiencies
175
What can be done to assist digestive enzymes
herbal bitters 15-20 mins before meals stimulate the vagus nerve and also trigger release of CCK
176
What herbal bitters could be used for promotion of digestive enzymes
gentian, barberry bark, andrographis & dandelion & also bitter greens
177
Name two plants with proteases
pineapple (bromelain) & papayas (papain)
178
What is the benefit of eating papaya or pineapple
they contain proteases and can tolerate a wider pH than human proteases therefore can pass the stomach intact. They can be denatured by heat however
179
Name some foods that contain enzymes
pineapple and papaya contain proteases.
Sprouts
kiwi (aids protein digestion)
avocado - lipase
Garlic - allin and allinase. When crushed or chopped it converts into allicin which is anti microbial, anti-oxidany, cardio protective and anti-cancer properties
180
what destroys enzymes in food
cooking. they start to be destroyed when food is heated above 40c. Enzymes can support digestion, breakdown of macro nutrients and digestive burden
181
what decreases antioxidant value of food
cooking. also water soluble vits are lost in water
182
which compounds are more available when heated
lycopene and betacarotene
183
which digestive disorders would eating raw be unadvisorable
Small Intestinal Bacterial overgrowth - it could cause immediate bloating
184
What effects do Brassicas have on the thyroid gland
Brassicas are goitrogenic foods and disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland. however they are inactivated by the cooking process.
185
What are Cyclooxygenase-1 & 2 (cox) and lipoxygenase - 5(lox)
enzymes that are involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators - prostaglandins and leukotrienes
186
what effect does boswellia, curcumin and ginger have
they inhibit the cox and lox enzyme and therefore reduce inflammation
187
Why and how should you use turmeric
it inhibits cox and lox enzymes (inflammatory mediators). Use with pepper to enhance absorption of curcumin. It is fat soluable so take with fats like coconut oil
188
How and why should you eat ginger
Powdered ginger is stronger heat or use grated to reduce enzymes cox and lox
189
Boswelia
effective as a powder, supplement or frankincense topically. this can reduce the enzymes cox and lox
190
Give examples of enzyme inhibitors often prescribed
Antibiotics inactivate an enzyme nec for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls. Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, the enzyme the liver uses to make cholesterol and CoQ10
191
What is enzyme therapy?
This involves taking a large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of them are able to reach the bloodstream in tact
192
name 3 commonly used enzymes in enzyme therapy
bromelain, serrapeptase & pancreatic enzymes - proteases are thought to reduce inflammatory processes and aid in the more efficient clearance of damaged tissues
193
what are the shown effects of taking the proreolytic enzyme bromelain
anti-inflammatory - reducing inflammatory mediators such as bradykinin.
anti cancer properties
anti clotting and may also have effects on atherosclerosis plaques
194
What are the benefits of taking serrapeptase as a proteolytic enzyme?
it is thought to reduce inflammation by thinning the fluids formed by injury, facilitating drainage.
inhibiting the release of pain-mediating chemicals (bradykinin & histamine). It reduces pain & swelling without inhibiting prosaglandins with no gastro adverse effects like NSAIDS
enhancing cardiovascular health by breaking down the protein by product of blood coagulation called fibrin - therefore helping to dissolve blood clots & atherosclerosis plaques
195
What is ATP
it is the energy currency of the body - it captures the energy released by reactions in a way that we can use it. ATP is a nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups. the bonds between the groups contain lots of energy. Thro hydrolysis a group is removed releasing the energy
196
Why is magnesium important for ATP/energy
Magnesium binds to phosphate groups in ATP making the molecule curved, strained shape that aids the loss of phosphate, facilitating energy release. Hence low energy is a symptom of magnesium insufficiency.
197
How can we increase our intake of Magnesium?
Magnesium is a component of chlorophyll so intake of green veg.
198
What is ATP required for?
Capturing energy.
Driving body reactions(e.g. building proteins)
Fuel Movement
Transporting substances across membranes (active transport)
cell division
199
200
Why are B vitamins important in the ATP production
The body uses energy carriers to temporarily capture the energy released so that we can then convert the energy into ATP molecules later. Both NAD & Fad are made from Bvits (NAD from B3 & FAD B2)
201
What is NAD made up of
B3 Niacin or tryptophan & aspartic acid. Once it traps energy it then becomes NADH
202
What is FAD made up of
B2 Riboflavin. Once it traps energy it becomes FADH2
203
What is cellular respiration?
When fuel (glucose) is burned inside the body to form ATP.
204
Name the 4 steps of cellular respiration
Glycolysis
Formation of acetyl CoA
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain
(the last 3 occur in the mitochondria the first one in the cytosol)
205
What happens in Glycolysis
glycolysis is the 1st step of cellular respiration. Glucose (6 carbons) is turned into 2 Pyruvate (3 carbons in each). This takes 2 ATP to do but in doing so = 4ATP & 2 NADH. Glycolysis uses Magnesium & B3
206
What is lactic acid
When Oxygen isn't available NADH can't be turned into ATP so it reacts with pyruvate turning it into lactic acid (causing muscle pain & challenging the pH balance)
207
Name some causes of Anerobic respiration
many are chronically hypoxic due to pollution, stress(poor breathing mechanics) a lack of exercise, smoking & obesity. An anaerobic body accumulates lactic acid & creates an acidic environment
208
What can we recommend for clients presenting in a relative state of hypoxia (lack of oxygen)
exercise regularly (3-5 x incl outdoor)
diaphragmatic breathing exercises
get outdoors in nature (think plants & oxygen)
Optimise dietary iron intake to support oxygen delivery to tissues around the body (consider a green smoothie)
Improve desk posture & encourage more movement.
209
What happens in Acetyl CoA formation
if Oxygen is available pyruvate reacts with a B5 carrier molecule which allows it to enter the mitochondria. This requires B1, Lipoic acid and B5. During the reaction with lipoic acid and B1 the pyruvate loses one of its 3 carbons. Acetyl CoA therefore has 2 Carbons. This = 2 packets of energy are trapped as NADH
210
What does Coenzyme A do?
It is a vital carrier molecule to transport the acetyl into the mitochondria for the krebs cycle and carries energy in a high energy bond
211
How is Coenzyme A made?
It is naturally synthesised from B5 pantothenate found in meat, veg, cereal grains, legumes & eggs
212
What is another name for the Krebs cycle?
Citric Acid Cycle
213
where does the kreb cycle occur?
in the mitochondrial matrix
214
What nutrients does the Kreb cycle require?
Magnesium, Manganese, Iron, B1, B2, B3
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The enzymes used within the kreb cycle can be easily blocked by what?
heavy metals such as Aluminium & Mercury
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What role does oxygen play in the elcetron transport chain?
Oxygen is essential and without it NAD & FAD cannot be recycled
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There are 4 enzyme complexes within the electron transport chain. What nutrients are cofactors within this
complex 1 = iron & sulphur
Complex 2 = CoQ10
Complex 3 = Iron
Complex 4 = copper ions
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name some sulphur rich foods
leeks and garlic
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How many ATP molecules are produced from 1 glucose molecule?
38 during aerobic respiration. Only 2 during anaerobic
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Why is CoQ10 important
it is a key component of the electron chain & is stored within the mitochondria. It is an antioxidant & helps recycle other antioxidants (vit C & E), reduces free radical damage a common cause of damage within the mitochondria, and it slows down the aging changes, inhibits arterial LDL oxidation too
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name some sources of CoQ10
meat, poultry, fish. nuts, sesame seeds, broccoli, cauli, oranges strawberries
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Name some causes of mitochondrial damage
free radicals
medical drugs & alcohol (increasing free radicals decreasing antioxidants & depleting key nutrients)
environmental toxins (pollution, heavy metals, BPA)
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What pathologies are linked to poor mitochondrial function
Fibromyalgia, Type 2 diabetes, chronic fatigue syndrome, the pathogenesis of cancer
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what can we do to support mitochondrial health
reduce toxic load
Increase
Increase production of mitochondrial antioxidants - Glutathion & glutathione Peroxidase (by increasing sulphur rich foods) & CoQ10
Support detoxification & elimination - liver, lungs, bowel, kidneys, skin
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What herbs can be used to support mitochondrial health
adaptogenic herbs - ginseng, astragalus, rhodiola. Gingko biloba, rosemary and curcumin. Also for cleansing the blood burdock and dandelion
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how do we get energy from fats
This happens in the absence of carbs. Lipases split the triglycerides for the adipose tissue into fatty acids & glycerol. Fatty acids are then transported to the liver for BETA-OXIDATION to convert them into Acetyl CoA which can then enter the krebs cycle. The process repeats until the entire fatty acid is broken down into acetyl CoA units. The amount of energy produced depends on the length of the fatty acid
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what nutrients does beta oxidation require
Vit B2, B3 & sulphur
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What energy source is required for the brain
glucose or ketone bodies with that is not available (fasting)
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The mitochondria of liver cells can convert acetyl CoA into ketone bodies. What are their names?
acetone, acetoacetic acid & Beta -hydroxybutyrate
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when can ketosis happen
during high fat, low carb diets and whilst fasting
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explain ketoacidosis
this is when ketone bodies are excessively high. This can happen in diabetes melitus & alcoholism. Both acetoacetic acid and beta hydroxybutyrate are acidic and when these levels are high the pH of the blood drops. It can be smelt on a persons breath due to acetone
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what pathologies benefit from ketosis
epilepsy - it increases the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA
Neurodegenerative diseases such as alzheimers and Parkinsons
Cancerous cells cannot adapt to using ketones - they rely purely on glucose for metabolism
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What happens in the conversion of protein to energy
loss of nitrogen. Vit B3 & B6 are required for this. In doing so creation of Ammonia happens which should be converted to urea
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Where does glucogenesis take place
in the liver and (to a lesser extent) the kidneys during fasting, starvation or intense exercise. This requires ATP
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What nutrient is needed for gluconeogenesis
Biotin
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Name the major sources of energy for the body
Glucose - from carbs
fatty acids - from fat
Ketone bodies - from fat or amino acid metabolism
Amino acids - from proteins or the body if it is starving
