Bio Flashcards
Peripheral vs tansmembrane proteins
Page 434
Transmembrane go through both layers of phospholipid bilayer
Principle features of a eukaryotic cell
Cell wall (plants), cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and nuclear membrane -eukaryotic cells include animals, plants, and fungi (yeasts)
Describe hypotonic and hypertonic
Page 436
What is the cell membrane freely permeable to?
- Most lipid voluble substances
- Small uncharged molecules (O2 and CO2)
- Water
Passive (simple) diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport
- types of particles they transport
- use of energy and why
- what drives active transport
Page 440
Describe the endocytosis process
- types
- receptor mediated?
- steps
Page 441
Describe 3 types of cellular adhesions
Page 443
- tight junctions
- gap junctions
- desmosomes
What is the endomembrane system of the cell? What does each component do?
Page 443
- outer membrane (cell periphery)
- er (smooth and rough)
- nuclear membrane
Golgi apparatus
- function
- derived from
Page 444
Peroxisomes
Page 445
Lysosomes
Page 445
Vacuoles
Page 445
Mitochondria
- parts
- function
Page 445
Plastids
Page 445
Nucleolus
- location
- function
Page 446
Cillia and flagella are composed of what?
Microtubules (Tubulin)
Micro tubules
Page 446
- main component of centrioles, spindles, cytoskeleton, Cillia and flagella
- composed of tubulin (protein)
Centrioles
Assist in formation of mitotic spindles during cell division
Composed of micro tubules
Micro filaments
Second element of cytockeleton
Function in cell movement
Composed of actin (protein)
Describe cleavage
- steps
- names of the phases
Page 533
Describe morphogenesis
- how it’s directed
- layers
Page 535
Describe neurulation
- notochord, neural tube, neural plate
- where does each come from
Page 536
The neural tube is a precursor to what
Page 536
Brain, spinal chord, certain components of the eye (retina and optic nerve)
Describe induction
-when it occurs
Page 538
Describe differentiation and determination
Page 538
What does the endoderm give rise to?
- inner linings of esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines
- pancreas
- gallbladder
- liver
- inner linings of respiratory tract
What does the ectoderm give rise to?
- epidermis
- eye
- nervous system
What does the mesoderm give rise to?
- connective tissue
- heart
- blood cells (red and white, including those of the lymphatic system)
- urogenital system
- parts of other internal organs
What are gram stains used for and how do they work?
Page 546
Define: haploid, diploid, homology, and monoploidy
Which types of cells contain which number of chromosomes?
Page 509
Describe the phases of the cellular reproduction cycle (mitosis)
-what happens in each phase
Page 511
Describe the s-phase of mitosis
- when does it occur
- what’s a centromere, sister chromatid
Page 512
Describe mitosis
- what happens in each phase
- when does cytokinesis come in and what is it/when is it
- what marks the beginning/end of each phase
Page 512
What is reduction division?
Page 515
What are tetrads?
Page 515
What is synapsis?
Page 515
What is a chiasma/synaptonemal membrane
Page 515
What is the diff btw prophase in mitosis and prophase 1 in meiosis?
Page 515
When does crossing over and synapsis occur?
In p1
A tetra is composed of how many chromatids?
4
What differs in m1 (from mitosis)
Pairs of homologous chromosomes align at the center instead of single chromosomes
What differs in a1 (compared to mitosis)
Centromeres do not split
Describe what is produced overall in meiosis vs mitosis
- haploid/diploid
- same or diff
- number of cells
Page 520
-read and think about what each cell gets wrt original genome and when the s-phase is
Describe the terms gametogenesis, gonads, & gametes wrt male and female + where each occurs
Page 522
Describe spermatogenesis
- terms
- where each step occurs
- haploid or diploid
- meiotic or mitotic
Page 523
Describe oogenesis
- terms
- where each step occurs
- haploid or diploid
- meiotic or mitotic
Page 525
What is the diff btw spermatogenesis and oogenesis?
Page 525
-unequal cytoplasm distribution
What is normally the site of implantation and fertilization?
Page 528
-uterus (endometrial tissue) and Fallopian tube
What is a follicle?
Page 528
What are the 2 membrane layers of the ovum?
- how they function in fertilization
Page 528
Describe bacteria wrt
- euk/prok
- single/multicellular
- shape/characteristics
- differentiation
- cell wall
- reproduction
- DNA or RNA
- haploid or diploid
Page 545
Describe viruses wrt
- euk/prok
- single/multicellular
- shape/characteristics
- differentiation
- cell wall
- reproduction
- DNA or RNA
- haploid or diploid
Page 548
Describe fungi wrt
- euk/prok
- single/multicellular
- shape/characteristics
- differentiation
- cell wall
- reproduction
- DNA or RNA
- haploid or diploid
Page 551
Formula for binary fission (bacterial reproduction)
Population size (#)=2^(g-1) g is how many generations
Is a bacteriums genome the same or diff than its parents?
Different through 3 recombinant processes (page 546)
-name and describe the processes too
Is binary fission a recombinant process?
No (page 547)
Describe the terms:
- autotroph, heterotroph, chemoautptroph
- herbivore, omnivore, carnivore
- parasite, saprophyte
Page 554
Describe bacterial metabolism wrt:
- aerobic
- anaerobic (obligate, facultative, and tolerant)
Page 556
Describe mutualism and a nitrogen fixing bacteria
Page 557
Describe homologous and hemizygous
Page 451
-note that the pair of homologous chromosomes in myself contain one chromosome from my mother and the other from my father
Describe a bacterial genome
Page 451
-double stranded DNA with only one highly coiled circular chromosome, not enclosed in a membrane or nucleus
What are histones and nucleosomes and when are they visible? What are they made of?
Page 452
What shape does DNA take?
- what compromises each part
- bonds
- what is a nucleotide/base
Page 455
Describe how purines and pyrimidines pair and what each looks like and what bond they form and how many bonds form
Page 457
What is the variable region of DNA?
The sequence of nucleotides (the backbone is not variable)
Draw the deoxyribose unit in detail
- describe 5’ and 3’ end
- antiparallel
- which way it runs (5’vs3’)
Page 463
Describe the DNA replication process
-what direction it occurs
Page 465
What is conventional expression of nucleotide sequence
Page 468
-5’ to 3’
Difference btw DNA and RNA
- sugar backbone
- pyrimidines
- strandedness
- stability
- lifespan in the cell
- template strand, non coding/coding
- polymerase
- which way it reads
Page 471 and 473
Describe the coding (sense) strand and non-coding (anti-sense) strand
Page 473
Describe the details of prokaryotic transcription template recognition
- upstream/downstream
- promoter site, consensus sequence
- transcription unit
Page 475
Describe prokaryotic initiation
- ribonucleoside triphosphates (NTP’s)
- start site
- DNA-RNA hybrid
- Pyrophosphate
- when sigma factor detaches
- when it’s complete
Page 478
Details of elongation
- when it begins/ends
- length of hybrid
- direction of transcription
Page 481
Details of termination
- hairpin loop
- Rho factor
Page 483
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic transcription
- cellular site
- RNA polymerase
- nature and complexity of promoters
- transcription factors
- RNA processing (primary transcript, introns and exons)
Page 485
Generally describe translation
Page 488
Describe the prokaryotic ribosome
- subunits
- what they are made of
- sites
- polyribosome
Page 489
Describe prokaryotic tRNA
- structure
- sites
- how many diff anticodons are there
- how many tRNA to an amino acid?
- amino acyl-tRNA synthesis
- naming
Page 491
Amino acid activation
- delta G value
- reaction summary
- what is the energy in adulation used for
Page 491
Describe prokaryotic initiation (translation)
- direction
- untranslatedd region
- start codon
- initiation complex
- fMET-tRNA^Met
- assembly is powered by what
Page 491
Describe the details of elongation in prokaryotic translation
- type of bond involved
- energy required
Page 493
Describe termination of prokaryotes in translation
- stop codons
- release factors
- energy
Page 495
Describe the energetics of translation in prokaryotes
Page 496
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic translation
- ribosomes
- mRNA source
- 5’ UTR
- first amino acid
- timing or translation and transcription
Page 498
What direction is conventional in describing DNA, mRNA, and tRNA?
DNA 5-3
mRNA 5-3
tRNA 3-5
What is the generic code?
-degenerate
Page 499
Describe the areas on the transcription unit
Page 502
DNA replication vs transcription vs translation
- signal to get ready
- signal to start/stop
- key enzyme
- other enzymes
- template molecule
- read direction/build direction
- molecule synthesized
- prok/euk location
Page 503
Explain what a catalyst does
-does it promote endothermicity and exothermicity and free energy
Page 561
Describe the enzyme substrate complex
-lock and key vs induced fit
Page 563
Describe the specificity of enzymes
Page 563
-pH and temperature
What does the rate of a catalyzed reaction depend on?
Page 564
- concentration
- cofactors/coenzymes
Describe enzyme inhibition
-feedback vs competitive
Page 565
Describe ATP
- what it’s made of
- where the energy comes from
Page 657
Describe glycolysis
- aerobic or anaerobic
- net output
- brief description or process
- where it occurs
Page 569
Describe fermentation
- net result
- necessity of it for glycolysis to occur
- in yeasts
Page 569
Where do aerobic processes occur?
Mitochondria
In aerobic respiration, what I used as the final oxidizing agent?
Oxygen
How many molecules of ATP does aerobic respiration yield?
Btw 30 and 32
Describe the Krebs cycle
- oxidation or reduction
- pyruvate dehydrogenase
- products generated
- how many turns does 1 molecule of glucose generate
Page 571
Describe electron transport chain
- where it occurs
- cytochrome carrier system
- the role oxygen plays
- overall purpose
Page 574
Describe oxidative phosphorylation
- potential energy
- were it occurs
- coupling
Page 576
Compare aerobic vs anaerobic ATP production
Page 579
Explain how much ATP eah step produces wrt protons pumped by oxidative phosphorylation
- NADH
- FADH2
Page 580
What is a gene product?
Page 693
True or false: all chromosomal sequences constitute genes
False: page 693
Define the terms allele, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, and genotype
Page 694 and 700 and 701
Define phenotype
Page 696
Describe the source of the genotype wrt mother and father
Page 696
Explain the law of segregation and law of independent assortment (wrt genes and alleles)
Page 696
Describe dominant and recessive alleles
-classical (Mendelian) dominance
Page 702
Explain the punnett square for monohybrid and dihybrid generic cross
Page 703
What is a testcross
Page 704
Describe incomplete dominance and co-dominance
-examples
Page 705
Describe how we get human blood types
- antigens/erythrocytes
- alleles
- antigen D
Page 706
Describe 2 type of genetic recombination
Page 707
Describe mutations in term of how much they affect evolution
Page 707
What is a point mutation
- silent
- missense
- nonsense
Page 708
What is a frameshift mutation
Page 708
Female vs male chromosomes
-how to determine sex
Page 709
Female xx
Male xy
Describe autosomal traits
Page 710
Describe mitochondrial traits
-recessive or dominant
Page 710
Describe y linked traits
-recessive or dominant
Page 710
Describe sex-linked (x-linked) traits
- recessive/dominant
- carriers
- how it’s passed on to male/female from male/female
Page 710
What is a pedigree
-3 step approach
Page 711
6 modes of inheritance
- autosomal recessive
- autosomal dominant
- y-linked
- mitochondrial
- x-linked recessive
- x-linked dominant
Page 712
What is a gene pool
-what leads to a gene pool
Page 717
Describe evolution
- wrt populations
- Darwinian fitness
- environmental alteration
Page 717
Explain speciation and reproductive isolation
Page 720
Describe adaptive radiation
- niche
- types
Page 720
Explain the Hardy-Weinberg law (to predict gene frequency in a population
-assumptions
Page 722
p+q=1
(p+q)^2=1^2
p^2+2pq+q^2=1
Explain genetic drift
Page 723
Describe taxonomy and name the order of classification
Page 725
King Phillip came over for good soup
Describe symbiosis
- mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism
- how it relates to ecosystem
Page 725
Where is respiration controlled?
- nerve
- muscles
- what causes inspiration/expiration
Page 589
-note that expiration is a passive process
Describe the respiratory tract
Page 591
Explain the role of surfactant
Page 594
Explain gas exchange
- blood gas biochemistry
- regulatory control of it
- bicarbonate buffer system
Page 593, 595
What is the muscle tissue of the heart called?
Myocardium
What is the function of capillaries?
Page 598
Name the valve of the heart
- types
- location
Page 599
Describe the flow of the heart
- blood flow
- contraction
- systole and diastole
- pulse
- sa node and heart rate, av node, bundle of his, purkinje fibers
Page 602
What is the blood composed of?
- hematocrit
- plasma
- serum
Page 608
Describehydrostatic and oncotic pressure
Page 609
Briefly explain the lymphatic system
- what it does
- where it empties
- lymph nodes
- spleen and thymus
- lymphocytes
Page 611
Describe digestion from mouth to stomach
-enzyme(s)
Page 613
Describe digestion in the stomach
Page 614
Describe digestion in the small intestine
-enzymes
Page 614
Explain the role of the liver and gall bladder in digestion
Page 616
Describe digestion wrt the large intestine
Page 618
Describe the composition of bone
- matrix (organic and inorganic)
- cell types (osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes)
Page 619
Compact vs spongy bone
-types of bone marrow
Page 619
Describe the haversian system of bones
-lamellae, osteon, canal, spicules
Page 620
Describe joints, ligaments and tendons
-types of joints
Page 621
Describe the sarcomere
- what are filaments composed of
- A band, I band, H zone
Page 623
Describe skeletal muscle contraction
- troponin and tropomyosin
- T tubules
Page 623
Explain the energy requirements for muscular function
Page 627
Explain the difference btw cardiac and smooth muscle
Page 627
4 functions of renal system
Page 633
Know structures of the kidney
- including vasculature
- visceral and parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule
- filtrate
- what passes through Bowman’s capsule
Page 636-639
Explain what happens through the course of the nephron
- proximal tubule
- descending l.o.h.
- ascending
- distal tubule
- collecting duct
Page 640
Explain hormone regulation of the nephron
Page 644
Explain the difference btw endocrine and exocrine glands
Page 645
Explain the diff btw the diff classes of hormones
- hydrophilic or phobic
- synthesis and storage
- blood travel
- receptor binding
- effect on target
- length of effect
Page 647
Describe the pancreas role in the endocrine system
- 4 main functions of insulin
- insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
- hyper/hypoglycemia
Page 647
explain the adrenal glands as an endocrine organ
- cortex vs medulla
- hormones and what they do/what triggers them
Page 650
Describe the thyroid lands wrt endocrine function
- parathyroid glands
- hypothyroidism
- calcitonin T3 ad T4
Page 651
Explain the endrocrine process of the female sex organs
Page 652
Explain the endocrine process of the male reproductive organs
Page 657
Describe the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
-hormone secretion
Page 658
Explain endocrine system regulation
- 2 divisions
- tropic hormones
Page 660
Describe the neurons rating potential
Page 664
Describe the action potential
-depolarization, repolarization, refractory period
Page 666
Explain Salvatore conduction, Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes
Page 671
Question on 673
Explain impulse transmission at the synapse
-2 neurotransmitters
Page 673
Describe the divisions of the nervous system
Page 676
Roughly know what each part of the brain does
Page 678
Explain the simple reflex arc
Page 681
Describe preganglionic and post ganglionic neurons
-wrt peripheral ns
Page 683
Sympathetic vs parasympathetic systems
-function and stucture
Page 684
Describe the 5 types of sensory receptors
Page 686
Briefly describe the vestibular/auditory system
Page 687
Briefly describe the visual system
- myopia and hyperopia
- Ross and cones
- rhodopsin
- muscles
Page 688
Briefly describe the skin
Page 689
What is the genetic code?
The association btw each mRNA codon and the amino acid for which it codes
