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BIO 320 - SI Session > BIO 322 Exam 1 Lectures 1-5 > Flashcards

BIO 322 Exam 1 Lectures 1-5 Flashcards

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1
Q

What did John Ray of Cambridge University (1627-1705) propose?

A

Classification of flowering plants based on cotyledons and the “Imperfect” category

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2
Q

What are Cotyledons?

A

Embryonic leaves

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3
Q

What is the Imperfect category?

A

Created by John ray to describe plants having no flowers or seeds (ferns, mosses, etc.)

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4
Q

What is the cotyledon classification proposed by John Ray?

A

Dicotyledons and monocotyledons

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5
Q

Are there any exceptions to the cotyledon classification?

A

Few flowering plants have more than 2 cotyledons and some remain at soil level or underground and are not photosynthetic.

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6
Q

What are dicotyledons?

A

They have 2 embryonic leaves and their apical meristem is at the top of their seedling.

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7
Q

What are monocotyledons?

A

They have one embryonic leaf and their apical meristem is at the bottom of their seedling/part of the seedling.

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8
Q

Monocotyledons are derived from dicotyledons. T/F

A

True

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9
Q

Dicots are derived from monocots. T/F

A

False

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10
Q

What is the simple definition of viridiplantae?

A

Green plants

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11
Q

About how many species are part of the Viridiplantae group?

A

450,000-500,000

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12
Q

What plants are included in Viridiplantae?

A

Land plants (Embryophyta) and photosynthetic green algae

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13
Q

What do Viridiplantae share in common?

A

Accessory pigment chlorophyll b, chlorophyll a, and starch production and storage in the chloroplast

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14
Q

What does monophyletic mean?

A

Groups have a single common ancestor

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15
Q

Are green algae and land plants monophyletic?

A

No, but they have a series of sequentially splitting lineages

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16
Q

How did green algae become photosynthetic?

A

An ancestor engulfed a cyanobacterium-like prokaryote approximately 1.7 billion years ago.

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17
Q

What are the three genomes of Viridiplantae?

A

Nuclear, mitochondrial, and plastid

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18
Q

We need to split Dicotyledons into several groups each at the same taxonomic rank to reflect evolution and recognizes the Monocots. T/F

A

True

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19
Q

What are the three groups of Dicots?

A

Eudicots, Ana Grade, Magnoliids

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20
Q

When did ancestors of land plants start colonizing land?

A

Around 500 Ma ago (Ordovician period)

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21
Q

When did large ferns and other plants grow to large stature?

A

By the middle Devonian (419-359 Ma ago)

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22
Q

What happened at the end of the Devonian?

A

Seed plants appeared

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23
Q

What are the challenges of living on land?

A

Support, UV Radiation, Dessication, Support and male gametes cannot Swim to female gametes (SUDS)

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24
Q

What are the advantages to living on land?

A

Sunlight is abundant, CO2 is more readily available than in water, no Predators, Tolerance to dryness or remain along wet areas (SCPT)

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25
Q

What are land plants called?

A

Embryophytes

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25
Q

About how many species of land plants and seed plants are there?

A

400,000 species of land plants and 370,000 species of seed plants (Angiosperms and Gymnosperms)

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26
Q

What are the protected reproductive organs in land plants (Embryophytes)?

A

Archegonia and antheridia

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27
Q

What are characteristics of land plants (Embryophytes)?

A

Sporophyte multicellular, cuticle present

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28
Q

How does the embryo develop in land plants (Embryophytes)?

A

They develop inside the archegonium receiving maternal nutrition.

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29
Q

How do embryos receive maternal nutrition?

A

By developing inside the archegonium

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30
Q

What are the three adaptations of alternation of generations?

A

Haplodiplontic, Sporangia, Gametangia

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31
Q

What do diploid sporangia (singular sporangium) produce?

A

Haploid spores by meiosis

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32
Q

How are gametophytes produced in haplontic/diplontic?

A

Spores divide/proliferate via mitotic divisions

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33
Q

How are gametangia produced and what are they?

A

Some cells of the gametophyte differentiate and produce sex cells which become gametangia. Gametangia are singular gametangiums.

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34
Q

What is a female gametangium?

A

Archegonium

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35
Q

What is the male gametangium?

A

Antheridium

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36
Q

Draw out the process of haplodiplontic alternation of generations.

A
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37
Q

What protects the embryo during haplodiplontic alternation of generations?

A

Female gametophyte

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38
Q

How many kinds of spores do heterosporous plants produce?

A

Two

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39
Q

What is a meristem?

A

Tissue containing undifferentiated cells

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40
Q

What are apical meristems?

A

Produce cells that differentiate into shoots and leaves and produce vascular tissues.

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41
Q

Where are apical meristems found?

A

The tip of shoots

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42
Q

Do root tips have a meristem?

A

Yes

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43
Q

Side roots arise from meristems.

A

False, they do not arise from meristems but will have a meristem at the tip.

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44
Q

What does indeterminate growth in meristems of stems lead to?

A

Continuous production of leaves, nodes and axillary shoots

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45
Q

Plants continue to generate new growth and organs. T/F

A

Yes

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46
Q

What type of plants are a combination of old and new growth structures?

A

Woody plants

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47
Q

What is the life span of annuals?

A

Specified life span ranging from a few weeks to a few months. They grow, flower, and reproduce in ONE growing season.

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48
Q

What is the life span of perennials?

A

No specific life span. Density independent factors like weather, drought, disease, etc. determine death.

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49
Q

What is the life span of biennial plants?

A

They live for two years. The first year of growth forms a vegetative rosette that flowers and fructifies in the second year.

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50
Q

What are the function of cuticles?

A

They protect leaves and stems from dessication

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51
Q

What do cuticles produce?

A

Stomata

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52
Q

What is the function of flavonoids?

A

Protection from UV light

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53
Q

Name a few defenses to herbivory (predation).

A

Spines. Poisonous secondary metabolites: alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides

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54
Q

Name three poisonous secondary metabolites.

A

Alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides

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55
Q

What are two adaptations that are specific to seed plants?

A

Seeds and pollen

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56
Q

Why are seeds important?

A

They help adapt to drought through embryo protection, dormancy, and food reserves.

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57
Q

Why is pollen important?

A

It allowed seed plants to adapt to fertilization on land.

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58
Q

What is sporopollenin?

A

The outer layer of pollen (exine) and spores

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59
Q

What is sporopollenin composed of?

A

A mixture of biopolymers

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60
Q

What is special about sporopollenin?

A

It is one of the most chemically inert biological polymers (fatty acids, phenolics, carotenoids). Also, pollen exines can last for hundreds of millions of years.

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61
Q

Why did seeds change the course of plant evolution?

A

They enabled their bearers to become the dominant producers in most terrestrial ecosystems

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62
Q

When did seed plants originate?

A

About 360 million years ago

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63
Q

What makes up a seed?

A

An embryo and nutrients surround by a protective coat

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64
Q

What is one way that seeds disperse over long distances?

A

Wind

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65
Q

What are the evolutionary advantages of seeds over spores?

A
  1. They may remain dormant for days to years, until conditions are favorable for germination.
  2. Seeds have a supply of stored food.
  3. They may be transported long distances by wind, water, or animals.
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66
Q

How is glucose produced by plants?

A

Photosynthesis

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67
Q

Why is glucose important to plants?

A

All other organic compounds are derived from glucose, except for a few compounds produced by endosymbionts.

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68
Q

What is responsible for changing global climate?

A

Accumulation of atmospheric CO2

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69
Q

How do plants help with global climate?

A

They remove atmospheric CO2 during photosynthesis.

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70
Q

Can plants reverse the accumulation?

A

Release of CO2 outstrips assimilation

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71
Q

Equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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72
Q

All life on Earth evolved from ___

A

a common ancestor

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73
Q

How do scientists map how organisms are related to each other?

A

Constructing phylogenetic trees

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74
Q

Define phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history and the relationships among a species or group of species.

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75
Q

Define systematics

A

The study of organisms with the purpose of deriving their relationships.

76
Q

Define taxonomy

A

Science of naming and grouping species to construct a classification system using Carl Linnaeus’s hierarchical model

77
Q

Define nomenclature

A

A part of taxonomy and focuses on developing and maintaining a system for creating names

78
Q

Define taxon (taxa, plural)

A

A group of organisms or populations of an organism at any rank that form a unit

79
Q

What are the goals that taxonomists adopted at the end of the 19th century?

A
  1. Developing a natural system of classification, in which closely related organisms are grouped
  2. Assigning plant names on the basis of phylogenetic relationships
80
Q

What started because of pharmacology?

A

Efforts to understand the diversity of plants and to classify it

81
Q

What did ancient cultures believe in regarding plants?

A

Plants possessed the ability to cure disease incentivize those societies to support the study of plants.

82
Q

Define pharmacopaeia

A

A list of medicinal drugs with their effects and directions for use

83
Q

What was the first pharmacopaeia like?

A

It was a Sumerian cuneiform tablet. Most medicinals came from plants, especially odiferous species.

84
Q

What herbs were used in the first pharmacopaeia?

A

Cassia (cinnamon relative), myrtle, asafoetida, and thyme

85
Q

What trees were used in the first pharmacopaeia?

A

Willow, pear, fir, fig, and dates

86
Q

What were medicinals in the first pharmacopaeia prepared from?

A

Seed, root, branch, bark, or gum

87
Q

What was Discordes’ pharmacopaeia?

A

De Materia Medica

88
Q

Why was De Materia Medica important to pharmacology?

A

It was the principal book used for the next 1500 years. It became the precursor of modern treatments.

89
Q

Who proposed the concept of Genus?

A

Bauhin

90
Q

What did Bauhin do?

A

He described 6,000 species, classified trees, shrubs, herbs, etc., and created binomial names.

91
Q

Who is Carl Linnaeus?

A

Swedish botanist and zoologist (1707-1778)

92
Q

Why is Carl Linnaeus important to botany?

A

He was the first to use binomials consistently throughout his publications to classify species.

93
Q

Who is Carl Linnaeus?

A

The Father of Taxonomy

94
Q

Why was Carl Linnaeus’ Systema Naturae important?

A

It had multiple editions. Each new edition was revised to include more species.

95
Q

What are the disadvantages of ‘common’ names?

A

Most plants have no vernacular name. Common names are not universal or consistent (can be applied to different species and many names can apply to one species).

96
Q

What makes up a scientific (latin or binomial) name?

A

Genus species and authority (ex. Vicia faba L.)

97
Q

What is the authority in naming?

A

Author, typically abbreviated

98
Q

How are new species named?

A

International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) and International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)

99
Q

Why is the ICNCP different from ICN?

A

It is independent from zoological nomenclature, sets rules for naming new taxa, and rules for determining the correct name of a taxon.

100
Q

What are the principles of Botanical Nomenclature?

A
  1. Independent from zoological and bacteriological Codes
  2. Each taxon of a particular circumscription, position and rank can have only one correct name.
  3. The correct name is the earliest legitimate name (principle of priority).
  4. (Nearly) every scientific name references a type or types.
101
Q

Define type.

A

Specimen permanently associated with a name

102
Q

Define holotype

A

Specimen upon which the taxon name is based; designated in the publication of the name

103
Q

Define isotype

A

A duplicate of the holotype collected at the same time and place by the same collector

104
Q

Define lectotype

A

A specimen selected from the original collected material chosen to serve as the type when the holotype is destroyed or permanently lost

105
Q

Define neotype

A

Specimen derived from a non-original collection that is selected to serve as the type

106
Q

Where are specimens stored?

A

Herbaria

107
Q

How many herbaria are around the world?

A

About 3200 and each has an acronym

108
Q

It is hard to say which is the best herbarium as each institution has a different set of collections. T/F

A

True

109
Q

What classifies an herbaria as influential?

A

Having more than 5-7 million specimens, more than 100 years old, and have had famous botanists on staff that sponsored many expeditions to remote or unexplored areas of the planet

110
Q

If to argue, which is the best herbarium?

A

K or Royal Botanic Gardens Kew in West London. They have 7 million specimens that represent 95% of all the plants of the world. They have 330,000 type specimens.

111
Q

Important Herbaria of the USA

A

NY, New York Botanical Garden
HUH, Harvard University Herbaria
TEX-LL, University of Texas, Austin

112
Q

When was TEX-LL founded?

A

1912 by first curator Mary S. Young

113
Q

What is TEX-LL?

A

The B.L. Turner Plant resources Center

114
Q

Why is TEX-LL important?

A

It has over 1 million specimens with around 8500 types. It is the best collection of Texas plants and Mexican plants. It is one of the best collections of sunflowers in the world.

115
Q

What are the levels of taxonomic categories?

A

Kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, species

116
Q

What is the specific ending for the division classification level?

A

-phyta

117
Q

What is the specific ending for class classification level?

A

-opsida

118
Q

What is the specific ending for order classification level?

A

-ales

119
Q

What is the specific ending for family classification level?

A

-aceae

120
Q

What are some names that have no formal rank?

A

Eudicots, Magnoliids, Ana Grade

121
Q

Why are names with on formal rank important?

A

They designate important clades with strong support in phylogenetic analyses that include groups positioned between recognized taxonomic categories.

122
Q

The higher the taxonomic category the more exclusive it is. T/F

A

False. They are more inclusive; they include more species in it.

123
Q

What is artificial classification?

A

It uses characters that are easy to observe and are not focused on phylogeny.

124
Q

What is the goal of artificial classification?

A

To arrive at the right identification of a species. (ex. guides to flowers in a region)

125
Q

What are the three assumptions of cladistics?

A
  1. All organisms are related by descent from a common ancestor
  2. Speciation occurs by splits of one species into two, never more.
  3. Traits change through time. Polarity of character change.
126
Q

What does cladistics compare?

A

Ingroups and outgroups

127
Q

Define ingroup

A

Group of interest

128
Q

Define outgroup

A

A group outside of the group of interest (ingroup); closely related to the ingroup, the various species being studied

129
Q

The outgroup is a group that has diverged before the ingroup. T/F

A

True

130
Q

What do systematists do?

A

Compare each ingroup species with the outgroup to differentiate between shared derived (synapomorphies) and shared ancestral characteristics

131
Q

What are synapomorphies?

A

Groups with shared derived characteristics

132
Q

Define monophyletic

A

A valid clade; signifies that it consists of the ancestor species and all of its descendants

133
Q

Define paraphyletic grouping

A

Consists of an ancestral species and some (but not all) of the descendants

134
Q

What is polyphyletic grouping?

A

Includes distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor

135
Q

What makes a clade?

A

Every descendant from an ancestral species

136
Q

What does maximum parsimony assume?

A

That the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events is most likelyW

137
Q

What are evolutionary events?

A

Appearances of shared derived characters

138
Q

What does the principle of maximum likelihood state?

A

Given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events. Maximum likelihood means that only one tree is produced.

139
Q

What are Bayesian Statistics?

A

Uses Bayes theorem to compute and update the conditional probability of an event. Uses probaility and priors.

140
Q

What does probability express?

A

A degree of belief in an event

141
Q

What are priors?

A

Prior knowledge

142
Q

Why are priors important to Bayesian Statistics?

A

They are used to calculate posterior probabilities of events

143
Q

What are the three domains?

A

Bacteria (with Cyanobacteria), Archaea, and Eukarya

144
Q

What website summarizes relevant scientific research for all plant groups?

A

Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, version 14

145
Q

What are the two main divisions of the cell cycle?

A

Growth phase and division phase

146
Q

What is the part of the cell cycle without division named?

A

Interphase

147
Q

What phases are detected in interphase?

A

G1, S, and G2

148
Q

When are bark cells more protective?

A

When they are dead

149
Q

Where are cells that never stop dividing?

A

In the growing points at the tips of roots and shoots (and those that produce wood)

150
Q

What is division of the nucleus called?

A

Karyokinesis

151
Q

What are the two types of karyokinesis?

A

Mitosis and meiosis

152
Q

What type of division is mitosis?

A

Duplication

153
Q

What type of division is meiosis?

A

Reduction

154
Q

What is division of the cytoplasm called?

A

Cytokinesis

155
Q

During mitosis, what does each cell half typically contain?

A

Mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and vacuoles

156
Q

What happens during prophase in mitosis?

A

The preprophase band forms just inside the plasma membrane.

157
Q

What does the preprophase band identify in mitosis?

A

The plane of division; marks the region where the new cell wall will attach to the existing wall

158
Q

What is the phragmoplast?

A

A set of short microtubules that forms in the center of the cell.

159
Q

What do phragmoplasts do?

A

It traps dictyosome vesicles. The vesicles fuse into a large, flat, plate-like vesicle. Within this structure, two new primary walls and a middle lamella begin to form.

160
Q

What forms the cell plate?

A

The phragmoplast, vesicle, and walls; these grow outward until they fuse with those of the mother cell.

161
Q

How is vacuole division accomplished?

A

With a phragmosome

162
Q

What is a phragmosome?

A

A set of microtubules, actin filaments, and cytoplasm

163
Q

What is meiosis referred to as?

A

Reduction division

164
Q

How do you get a diploid zygote in meiosis?

A

Haploid sex cells (gametes) must fuse together

165
Q

What type of cells does meiosis produce?

A

Four 1n cells from one 2n cell

166
Q

When does meiosis occur?

A

In the production of reproductive cells

167
Q

Meiosis involves one rounds of division. T/F

A

False; meiosis I and meiosis II

168
Q

Does the S phase occur after the first division in meiosis?

A

It does not

169
Q

What happens when karyokinesis occurs without cytokinesis?

A

The production of coenocytes, multinucleate cells

170
Q

How does cell division in coenocytes occur without nuclear division?

A

By forming cell walls around nuclei long after nuclei were formed.

171
Q

When is cell division in coenocytes common?

A

Algae, fungi, and endosperm

172
Q

What are polyploids?

A

Organisms with three or more sets of chromosomes

173
Q

What is Polyploidy or Whole Genome Duplication (WGD)?

A

A major mechanism in adaptation and speciation that is in 100% of all plants in their evolutionary history

174
Q

According to Comai (2005)…

A

Flowering plants produce polyploids in a 1/100,00 frequency (gametes)

175
Q

What are the mechanisms of polyploid formation?

A
  1. Non-reduction of gametes during meiosis
  2. Somatic doubling of chromosomes
  3. Polyspermy
176
Q

What is polyspermy?

A

An egg fertilized by several sperm nuclei

177
Q

Why is genomic repatterning important?

A

It can increase genetic variability and is especially important in the early establishment of polyploids.

178
Q

What do polyploids populations represent?

A

Small populations where the effects of genetic drift are considerable

179
Q

Describe polyploid lineages that have survived

A

They are a biased subset and are the ones with stable genomic configurations

180
Q

When are polyploids more likely to establish?

A

In shifting environments (hybridization between once allopatric species) or new environments where competition may be limited

181
Q

What is the main characteristic of autopolyploids?

A

Multiple sets of chromosomes of the same species

182
Q

When are autopolyploids produced?

A

In nature via unreduced gametes

183
Q

What commercial crops are examples of autopolyploid?

A

Alfalfa, bananas, peanuts, and potatoes

184
Q

Why have several autopolyploids been artificially produced?

A

To increase crop yield or obtain larger fruits or flowers due to their exhibition of hybrid vigor

185
Q

What is autopolyploid speciation a product of?

A

Cell division error in a 2n cell resulting in a tetraploid cell. When meiosis occurs, a new species will be created based on the Biological Species Concept

186
Q

What are allopolyploids?

A

Combination of genomes of different species

187
Q

How are allopolyploids produced?

A

From chromosome doubling after hybridization or fusion of unreduced gametes

188
Q

What are examples of allopolyploids in commercial crops?

A

Blueberries, oats, certain species of cotton, strawberries, and wheat

BIO 320 - SI Session (3 decks)

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