BIO 3200 Exam 1 Flashcards
What are the 6 major elements in the body? Tell their percentage.
Carbon (18.0), Oxygen (65.0), Hydrogen (10.0), Nitrogen (3.0), Ccalcium (15), Phosphorus (10), and Sulfur (0.25)
What happens when you have no iodine?
You get hypothyroidism.
What is an ionic bond?
It is the electrostatic attraction between electrically charged atoms or molecules.
What are electrolytes? What are they capable of?
electrolytes are salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electrical currents (signal for the ECG)
What is one important ionic crystal found in the body?
hydroxyapatite: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
What is bone composed of?
Bone is composed of collagen and hydroxyapatite (gives strength).
What 3 things are electrolytes important for?
They are important for their chemical reactivity, osmotic effects and electrical effects.
What can you do if someone has high blood pressure?
You give them a calcium channel blocker. Calcium channel blockers weaken the heart and lower blood pressure.
What are hydrogen bonds? What elements are typically involved in hydrogen bonds? Talk about their strength compared to other bonds.
They are electrostatic attractions involving δ- and δ+ charges resulting from polar covalent bonds. Nitrogen and oxygen are involved in these bonds. They are the weakest of the three major bonds but a very strong collective force.
How do you break a polymer? How do you make a polymer? What kind of reaction is each?
You break a polymer via decomposition. It is a catabolic reaction (hydrolysis, phophorolysis).You make a polymer via synthesis. It is an anabolic reaction (dehydration synthesis).
What is phosphorolysis? Why is it important?
It is when you use a phosphate to break glycogen into glucose molecules. The liver does this when your glucose levels are low so you don’t become hypoglycemic.
What is the equation for the bicarbonate buffer system? What is the enzyme involved in making carbonic acid? What does it do?
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
The enzyme involved is carbonic anhydrase. This reaction regulates blood pH.
If you hypoventilate, what happens to the equation?
CO2 decreases so the equation goes to the right.
How are the kidneys involved in the bicarbonate buffer system?
If your blood is acidic, the kidneys excrete less HCO3-, decreasing the amount of H+, which increases the pH.
What are the 3 important characteristics of water?
It has remarkable solubility (universal solvent), reactivity (metabolic chemistry), high specific heat (1 cal).
What do cells do in hypertonic solutions? hypotonic? isotonic?
cells shrink in hypertonic solutions, swell in hypotonic solutions and remain the same in isotonic solutions
What does hydrophilic mean? Hydrophobic? Amphiphatic?
Hydrophilic molecules are polar and “water loving.” Hydrophobic molecules are non polar “scared of water.” Amphiphatic compounds from micelles in water.
What is “bad cholesterol”? “good cholesterol”?
LDL is bad while HDL is good.
What is normal blood pH? What is acidosis? What is alkalosis?
Normal blood pH is 7.4. Acidosis is when blood pH falls below 7.35, while alkalosis is when blood pH is above 7.45.
What are the 4 functional groups we should know and what are they found on?
carboxylic acid (found on fatty acids and amino acids), amino group (found on amino acids), hydroxyl group (found on carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids), and phosphate group (phospholipids, nucleic acids, and high energy compounds)
What are the 3 major monosaccharides?
glucose, galactose, and fructose
What are carbohydrates composed of?
sugars
How do monosaccharides reach our mitochondria?
galactose and fructose get converted to glucose, which then becomes pyruvate, which then enters mitochondria
What the bond called between two saccharides?
glycosidic bond
What are the 3 major disaccharides?
lactose, sucrose, and maltose
What are the three brush border enzymes he mentioned?
sucrase, lactase, and maltase
What are the 3 major polysaccharides?
starch, glycogen, and cellulose
What is starch composed of?
80% amylase and 20% amylopectin
What part of our body stores glycogen?
liver and skeletal muscle store glycogen
What is the function of glucose?
also called blood sugar, it is an energy source for most cells
What is the function of fructose?
also known as fruit sugar, it is converted to glucose and metabolized
What is the function of galactose?
it is converted to glucose and metabolized
What is the function of sucrose?
also known as cane sugar, it is digested to glucose and fructose
What is the function of lactose?
also known as milk sugar, it is digested to glucose and galactose and is important for infant nutrition
What is the function of maltose?
also known as malt sugar, it is a product of starch digestion and is further converted to glucose
What is the function of cellulose?
it is the structural polysaccharide of plants and is dietary fiber
What is the function of starch?
energy storage in plant cells
What is the function of glycogen?
energy storage in muscle cells (liver, muscle)
What is the function of a glycoprotein?
component of cell surface coat and mucus
What is the function of a glycolipid?
component of the cell surface coat
What is the function of a proteoglycan?
cell adhesion, lubrication, and supportive filler of some tissues and organs
What is cholesterol a major precursor for?
for all steroids in the body
What is a chain of 2-15 amino acids called? 15-50? more than 50?
oligopeptide; polypeptide; protein
What might be the most important protein on the surface of the earth?
insulin
What type of insulin do type I diabetics take? type II?
Type I diabetics take fast acting insulin (short-lived), while type II diabetics take long lasting insulin (long-lived).
What kind of bond holds together fatty acids?
ester bonds
What kind of bonds hold together nucleic acids?
phophodiester bonds
What is CPK and what does it do?
creatine phosphokinase; it is involved in substrate level phosphorylation by phophorylating creatine
How does creatine help?
In the absence of cellular respiration, you can get energy from the dephosphorylation of phosphocreatine.
Why can’t cells be large?
the surface area to volume ratio gets too small
What are the 2 major classes of cells?
body cells (soma) and sex cells (gametes)
What are the typical cells of the integumentary system?
keratinocyte: skin cell of the epidermis
What are the typical cells of the nervous system? (2)
glial cell: support cell in nervous tissue and neuron: cell that receives and conducts nerve impulses
What are the typical cells of the skeletal system? (3)
osteoblast: cell that synthesizes bone, osteoclast: cell that degrades bone, and chondroblast: cell that synthesizes cartilage
What are the typical cells of the cardiovascular system? (4)
cardiocyte: heart muscle cell, erythrocyte: red blood cell (RBC), leukocyte: white blood cell (WBC), and platelet: blood clotting cell fragment
What are the typical cells of the muscular system?
myoblast: muscle stem cell and myofiber: skeletal muscle cell
What are the typical cells of the lymphatic/immune system? (3)
T cell: WBC that is responsible for cell-mediated immunity, B cell: WBC that is responsible for antibody-mediated immunity, and macrophage: WBC that performs phagocytosis.
What are the typical cells of the respiratory system? (1)
pneumocyte: cell responsible for mediating gas exchange in the lungs
What are the typical cells of the digestive system? (3)
enterocyte: intestinal epithelial cell, goblet cell: mucus secreting cell, and hepatocyte: liver cell
What are the typical cells of the reproductive system? (2)
ovum (oocyte): a mature egg cell and spermatozoon: a mature sperm cell
What are 6 other typical cells mentioned in the slides?
embryonic stem cell: cell capable of becoming any cell of the human body, fibroblast: cell that gives rise to connective tissue, epithelial cell: cell that lines the external and internal surfaces of the body, adipocyte: fat cell, parenchymal cell: functional cell of an organ, and stromal cell: structural cell of an organ
All cells of the human body are “bathed” in what?
a watery solution
All cells in the human body are in close proximity to what?
blood vessels; about 20 microns
What percentage of the plasma membrane is lipids?
98%
What are the 3 types of lipids found in the plasma membrane? What percentage?
75% of the lipids are phospholipids (amphipathic molecules), 20% of these lipids are cholesterol molecules (membrane fluidity), and 5% of these lipids are glycolipids (the extracellular glycocalyx)
What are integral proteins? Peripheral?
Integral proteins span across the entire membrane, while peripheral proteins are on either side of it.
What are glycoproteins?
carbohydrate plus protein
What are glycolipids?
carbohydrate plus lipid
What face do brush border enzymes face?
e-face
What side is the e-face? p-face?
e-face is the extracellular side; p-face is the intracellular
What is the cytoskeleton composed of?
microfilaments/ actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments
What do microfilaments do?
support microvilli; muscle contraction; cell movement
What do microtubules do?
support and movement of cilia, flagella, organelles, DNA
What do intermediate filaments do?
maintain cellular morphology; cellular attachment
What is psuedopodial movement?
pseudopod branches forward, cells follows (by crawling)
What is the apical surface? basal surface?
apical surface is the side of the cell that is facing a space, while the basal surface is the side of the cell facing connective tissue
What do microvilli typically do?
increase the cell’s surface area for absorption; form a brush border
How do intermediate filaments work?
they are connected to a plaque like structure, which have transmembrane proteins, which connect to others on an adjacent cell
What goes right through the membrane?
gas and lipid soluble molecules
How does water cross the membrane?
through channels called aquaporins
What is diffusion?
solutes moving down its concentration gradient
What are the 5 GLUT transporters and where are they found?
GLUT 1 (in all cells), GLUT 2 (small intestine on basal surface), GLUT 3 (brain), GLUT 4 (skeletal muscle adipose tissue), GLUT 5 (small intestine apical surface [fructose can cross too])
How many sodiums pass through the Na+/K+ ATPase? Potassiums? How many molecules of ATP are used?
3 Na+ in, 2 K+ out, and one ATP used
At rest, are cells more negative or positive on the inside compared to the outside?
negative
What creates an action potential?
making the inside of the cell more positive
What is a SGLT? How does it work?
SGLT is a Na+/glucose transporter. It uses the energy gradient of Na+ to drag glucose against its concentration gradient
How many sodium per glucose for SGLT 1? SGLT 2?
2 sodium per 1 glucose for SGLT 1 and 1:1 for SGLT 2
What are the 3 forms of endocytosis?
receptor-mediated endocytosis, pinocytosis (cellular drinking) and phagocytosis (cellular eating)
What did Dr. Bhanu Jena discover?
porosome
What 4 things are responsible for establishing RMP?
- Na+/K+ pump
- K+ leak channels
- nucleic acids
- cytosolic proteins
What are polarized cells?
cells more negative on the inside than the outside are said to be polarized; these cells are also referred to as excitable cells
What does depolarizing a cell mean?
depolarizing a cell makes the inside of the cell more positive; excited
What does hyperpolarizing a cell mean?
hyperpolarizing a cell makes it more negative on the inside; inhibited
What does repolarizing a cell do?
repolarizing a cell brings its TMP back to its normal RMP
What are the RMP values for neurons and skeletal muscle cells?
neurons (-70 mV) and skeletal muscle cells (-85 mV)
What are the 3 primary germ layers? What 4 tissues do they give rise to?
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm; they give rise to epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
What is the thoracic cavity subdivided into?
right pleural cavity (surrounds right lung), mediastinum (contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels), and left pleural cavity (surrounds left lung)
What does the mediastinum also contain?
pericardial cavity (surrounds the heart)
What does the abdominopelvic cavity contain?
abdominal cavity (contains many digestive glands and organs) and the pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and last portion of digestive tract)
What is the lining the touches the heart called? The one that is away?
visceral; parietal
What is the mesentery?
double layer of visceral peritoneum
What are the 3 major fluid compartments?
intravascular compartment (plasma), intracellular compartment, and interstitial compartment
What is the total body of water in males? females?
42 L; 35 L
What is the information that goes from receptor to control center called?
afferent information
What is the information that goes from the control center to the receptor called?
efferent information
What happens to blood vessels when body temperature goes down? goes up?
vasoconstrict; vasodilate
What are the ependymal cells? Part of?
specialized epithelial cells lining the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain; central nervous system
What are satellite cells? Part of?
support cells surrounding cell bodies in ganglia; peripheral nervous system
What do Schwann cells do? Part of?
form myelinated and unmyelinated coverings over axons; can only myelinate one segment of an axon; peripheral nervous system
What do astrocytes do? Part of?
help form the blood brain barrier with pedicels (vascular feet); structural support; scavengers of ions and neurotransmitters in extracellular space; central nervous system
What are oligodendrocytes? Part of?
it is the myelination of CNS axons (myelin sheath); one oligo can wrap around several different axons; central nervous system
What are microglia and what do they do? Part of?
macrophages of the CNS; phagocytosis and antigen presentation; central nervous system
What are the 2 different types of cells in the nervous system?
neuroglial cell and neurons (10 to 1)
What is an axolemma?
plasma membrane of an axon
How are neurons conductive?
they propagate changes in membrane potential (action potentials)
What do neurons secrete?
manufacture, store and secrete neurotransmitters
What are the two types of synapses?
electrical and chemical
What is anterograde movement? retrograde movement? What is movement mediated by?
anterograde movement: from the cell body to the terminal knob; retrograde movement: from the terminal knob to the cell body; movement is mediated by microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs)
What are the 3 classifications of neurons? function?
sensory neurons, interneurons of CNS (communicate information in between other 2), and efferent neurons (motor neurons)
Where is cerebral spinal fluid found?
in the ventricles
What are the 3 components of the PNS?
cranial nerves, spinal nerves and sensory receptors
What nerve bypasses the thalamus?
olfactory
About how many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
31
What is a ganglion?
aggregation of cell bodies in PNS
What is a nucleus in the CNS?
aggregation of nerve cell bodies in CNS
What happens when you have a reflex (touching a hot stove)? (5 steps)
1) arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor 2) activation of a sensory neuron
3) Information processing in CNS
4) Activation of a motor neuron
5) Response by effector
