Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Biology Final 2 > Bio > Flashcards

Bio Flashcards

0
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A

Did work prior to Crick and Watson on DNA

Contributed to Crick and Watson’s discovery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
1
Q

Chargaff’s Rules

A

Concentrations of the four nucleotide bases differ among different species
Concentrations of adenine and thymine are always about the same, and cytosine and guanine are always about the same

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

DNA bases

A 
Nitrogen-containing bases
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Double helix

A

Double strand of nucleotides that forms a spiral staircase shape

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

RNA bases

A 
Nitrogen-containing bases
Adenine (A)
Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Base pairing

A 
DNA:
  A > T
  C > G
RNA:
  A > U
  C > G
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Type of bonds that occur between complementary bases and holds the nucleotides together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Deoxyribose

A

Sugar in DNA nucleotides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Ribose

A

Sugar in RNA nucleotides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

DNA Replication

A

Process in which DNA is copied
Enzyme breaks hydrogen bonds of nucleotides
Another enzyme pairs new complementary nucleotides with parent
Two daughter molecules form, each with one new strand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

mRNA (Messenger)

A

Copies the genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus, and carries them to the cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

rRNA (ribosomal)

A

Helps form ribosomes, where proteins are assembled.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

tRNA (transfer)

A

Brings amino acids to ribosomes where they are joined together to form proteins
Made of anti codons, so it can carry the correct amino acids the ribosome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Central dogma of molecular biology

A

DNA - RNA - Protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Transcription

A 
DNA > RNA
DNA transfers info to mRNA by making an mRNA strand complementary to DNA
  Initiation
  Elongation
  Termination
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Transcription - Initiation

A

Enzyme RNA polymerase binds to region of gene called the promoter
Unwinds DNA so enzyme can read it and make mRNA with complementary bases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Transcription - Elongation

A

Addition of nucleotides to strand of mRNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Transcription - Termination

A

mRNA strand detaches from the DNA.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

Enzyme that binds to promoter in DNA so it can make a new mRNA strand

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Promoter

A

Region of gene where the RNA polymerase binds to do initiation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Codon

A

Group of three nitrogen bases in nucleic acids that make up a code for a start, an amino acid, or a stop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Stop codons

A

UAA
UAG
UGA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Start codons

A

AUG

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Genetic code

A

Encodes instructions for amino acid sequence
Universal- all organisms have same code
Unambiguous- each codon is for just one amino acid
Redundant- most amino acids are coded for by multiple codons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Translation
RNA > protein mRNA goes to ribosome Ribosome reads sequence tRNA brings correct amino acids
25
Polypeptide
Chain of amino acids formed in translation | Makes up protein
26
Amino acid chain
Makes up polypeptides, and therefore proteins
27
Ribosomes
Make proteins
28
Protein
Determine structure and function of cells in your body
29
Protein synthesis
Process in which cells make proteins | Transcription and translation
30
Miller-Urey experiment
Got mixture of gases, passed sparks through it to represent lighting, simple organic molecules formed Represents how life could have first started
31
How did meteors impact the earths formation
May have added water into the atmosphere
32
Relative dating
Age in relation to other fossils | Older than this fossil, up younger than that one
33
Absolute dating
About how long ago an organism lived | Gives a date
34
Early conditions on earth
Very hot, no atmosphere or water, toxic air
35
1st cells
Probably formed lipid membrane around organic molecules 3.5 billion years ago Prokaryotic Heterotrophs
36
1st eukaryotic cells
2 billion years ago Large cells engulfed small cells, which turned into organelles Endosymbiosis
37
Chemosynthesis
Use chemical energy to make food
38
First organic compounds
Cells lived in colonies > specialized cells started forming together into multicellular organisms
39
Taxonomy
Science of classifying organisms
40
Taxonomic Catagories
``` Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species ```
41
Linnaeus
Father of taxonomy Classified all known living things Started Linnaean Classification system Started binomial nomenclature
42
Binomial nomenclature
Method of naming species | Genus species
43
Domain
New taxon added to classification system | Larger and more inclusive than kingdom
44
Phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a group of related organisms
45
Phylogenetic tree
Diagram that shows how species are related through evolution
46
Cladogram
Represents Clades- groups of organisms that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants
47
Scientific name
Binomial nomenclature | ex. Homo sapien
48
Common name
Common name that people use for an organism | ex. Human
49
Evidence used to classify organisms
Obvious physical traits | Biochemistry of organisms
50
Fossils
Preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past
51
Darwin's theory of evolution
Organisms change over time-evolution happens | Evolution occurs by natural selection
52
Evolution
Change in the characteristics of living things over time, the change in species over time
53
Artificial selection
Progress in which organisms evolve traits useful to humans because people select which individuals are allowed to reproduce and pass on their genes to successive generations
54
Fitness
Relative ability of an organism to survive and produce fertile offspring
55
Homologous structures
Structures that are similar in organisms because they were inherited from the same organism
56
Analogous structures
Structures that are similar in unrelated organisms
57
Comparative embryology
The study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species
58
Vestigial structures
Structures that evolution has reduced in size because it is no longer needed
59
Biogeography
Study of how and why plants and animals live where they do
60
Adaptive radiation
Process by which a single species evolves into many new species to fill available niches
61
Population genetics
Science focusing on evolution within populations | Overlap between evolutionary theory and Mendelian genetics
62
Gene pool
Consists of all the genes of all the members of the population
63
Allele frequency
How often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the other alleles for that gene
64
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
``` Conditions for equilibrium/no evolution: No new mutations occur No migration Very large population Mating is at random in the population No natural selection ```
65
Mutation
Creates new genetic variation | Change in gamete that affects offspring
66
Gene flow
Change in allele frequencies that occurs when move into or out of a population
67
Genetic drift
Random change in allele frequencies in small populations
68
Natural selection
Evolutionary process in which some living things produce more offspring than others so the characteristics of organisms change over time
69
Stabilizing selection
Occurs when both extremes are selected against ex. Tall and short are bad so it has more average Graph- tall in middle, not at sides
70
Directional selection
One of the extremes is selected for but not the other ex. Long giraffe necks are better than short Graph-tall at one side, short at other
71
Disruptive selection
Occurs when both extremes are selected for, but not the middle Ex. White or black but not gray Graph-up on both sides, down in the middle
72
Causes of variation in Species
Mutation Genetic drift Gene flow Natural selection
73
Geographical isolation
Allopatric speciation | Cannot reproduce because are separated geographically from eachother, so they evolve differently
74
Reproductive isolation
Sympatric speciation Different evolution without being geographically separated because they can't reproduce together, so they evolve differently
75
Speciation
Process by which a new species evolves
76
Species
Group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring together in nature
77
Migration
Regular movement of individuals or populations
78
Immigration
Individuals moving into a population
79
Emmigration
Individuals moving out of a population
80
Law of superposition
Bottom layer of rocks is oldest, top layer of rocks is newest
81
Adaptation
Characteristic that helps living things survive and reproduce in a given environment
82
Four types of modern plants
Nonvascular Seedless Vascular Seeded Vascular (Non Flowering) Flowering Vascular
83
Non vascular plants
Don't have vascular tissues Liverworts Hornworts Moss
84
Characteristics of Nonvascular plants
Small Lack vascular tissues, leaves, seeds, and flowers Have hairlike rhizoids instead of roots Live in moist habitats
85
Example of Vascular seedless plant
Ferns
86
Example of flowerless seeded vascular plants
Pine tree
87
Example of flowering plant
Avacados
88
Rhizoids
Replacement for roots in Nonvascular plants that anchor them and absorb moisture
89
Liverworts
``` Nonvascular plant Tiny plants Have leaflike tissues Fine rhizoids Lack stems Grow in colonies ```
90
Hornworts
Nonvascular plant Tiny plants Very fine rhizoids Skinny, tall, grasslike things
91
Tracheophytes
Vascular plants | "Tube plants"
92
Xylem
Vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to stem and leaves Consists of dead cells Stiff and waterproof Runs through ground tissue
93
Phloem
Vascular tissue that transports food/sugar dissolved in water from photosynthetic cells to other parts of the plant for growth or storage Consists of living cells Runs through ground tissue
94
Evolutionary characteristics of vascular plants
Evolved true roots made of vascular tissues Evolved stems made of vascular tissues and lignin Evolved leaves to collect sunlight
95
Spermatophytes
Seeded plants
96
Bryophytes
Nonvascular plants
97
Parts of a seed
Embryo - inside seed, forms first leaf, root, stem Seed coat - protects embryo and keeps it from drying out Endosperm - stored food
98
Gymnosperm
Non flowering | Seeds in cones
99
Angiosperm
Flowering plants | Seeds in ovaries of flowers
100
Evolution of seed plants
Evolved about 300 million years ago Earth became drier, adapted Woody trunks, need like leaves
101
Nectar
Sweet sugary liquid produced by the flowers of many angiosperms to attract animal pollinators
102
Male flower parts
Stamen Filament Anther
103
Female flower parts
Pistil Stigma Style Ovary
104
Petals
Outer parts of a flower that are usually brightly colored to attract animal pollinators
105
Sepals
Part of a flower that helps protect it while it is still in a bud
106
Stamen
Male reproductive part of flower | Made up of a stalk like filament that ends in anther
107
Filament
Raises the anther up high to catch pollen in the wind or be picked up by pollinator
108
Anther
Sacks on top of filament that contains the pollen
109
Pistil
Female reproductive part of flower | Consists of stigma, style and ovary
110
Stigma
Raised sticky part of pistil that catches pollen
111
Style
Supports the stigma and connects it to the ovary
112
Ovary- flower
Contains the egg
113
Pollinators
Animals that collect pollen from a flower and spread it to other flowers
114
Characteristics of flowering plants
Flowers have bright colors, scents, and nectar to attract pollinators Have more efficient vascular tissues Ovaries may ripen into fruits
115
Three types of plant cell structures
Large central vacuole Cell wall Plastids
116
Central vacuole
Surrounded by its own membrane Contains water and dissolved substances Maintains pressure against cell wall to provide support and shape
117
Cell wall
Outside the cell membrane Shapes, supports, and protects the cell Prevents from absorbing too much water Keeps out dangerous molecules
118
Plastids
Membrane bound organelles with their own DNA | Chloroplasts and Chromoplasts
119
Chloroplasts
Contain green pigment chlorophyll | Carry out photosynthesis
120
Chromoplasts
Make and store pigments other than chlorophyll | Give flowers bright colors
121
Ground tissue
``` Makes up much of the interior of a plant Carries out basic metabolic functions Provides support May store food or water Just below the epidermis ```
122
Dermal tissue
Covers the outside of the plant Single layer of cells Mediates most interactions between plant and environment Secretes a cuticle
123
Epidermis
Single layer of dermal tissue that covers the outside of a plant
124
Cuticle
Waxy substance secreted by the epidermis | Coats, water proofs, protects plant
125
Vascular tissue
Runs through the ground tissue Consists of xylem and phloem Transports fluids
126
Cell growth
Go through cell growth and cell division Go through cellular differentiation- become specialized for jobs Cannot divide after differentiation Meristem keeps it growing
127
Meristem
Type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells that can continue to differentiate and divide and from which plants grow in length and width
128
Primary growth
Meristem at the tips of the roots and stems that grows the plant in length
129
Secondary growth
Meristem within and around vascular tissues that grows plant in width
130
Root systems
All the roots of a plant | Includes primary and secondary roots
131
Primary roots
Grow downward
132
Secondary roots
Branch out to the side
133
Taproot system
Single, thick primary root called the taproot Smaller secondary roots branch out to the sides Deep water sources Store a lot of food Anchors plant well
134
Fibrous root system
Many small branching roots called fibrous roots No large primary root Increases surface area for absorbing water and minerals Doesn't anchor well
135
Root structures
``` Root cap Waxy layer Xylem Phloem Ground tissue Epidermis Root hair Primary meristem ```
136
Root cap
Tip of a root | Consists of specialized cells that regulate primary growth
137
Waxy layer- roots
Coat and waterproof the vascular tissues so they don't leak
138
Primary Meristem
Where growth in length occurs
139
Root hairs
Tiny hairlike structures that extend from epidermal cells of plant roots and increase the surface area for absorption
140
Root functions
Absorbing water and minerals Anchoring and supporting the plant Storing food
141
Root growth
Specialized cells in root cap detect gravity so it grows downward Primary and secondary meristem grow length and width
142
Stems
Organs that hold plants upright so they can get sunlight and air Bear leaves, flowers, cones, and secondary stems Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves Carries food from leaves to rest of plant
143
Node
Where leaves, flowers, and secondary stems grow from
144
Axil
Angle between upper part of stem and petiole that branches off
145
Petiole
Attaches the lead to a part of the stem at the node
146
Blade
Part of the leaf that is wide, flat part that gather sunlight
147
Stem tissues
Epidermis Bark Ground tissue Vascular tissue
148
Epidermis- stem
Protects and water proofs the stem and controls gas exchange
149
Bark
Tissues that provide a rough, woody external covering on the stems of trees
150
Ground tissue- stem
Interior part of stem | Fill with water to provide support
151
Vascular tissue- stem
Run through ground tissue in bundles | Transport fluids
152
Secondary stems
Stems that grow out from the primary stems
153
Stem growth
Primary meristem at tips and nodes of stems | Secondary meristem in and around vascular tissues
154
Thick stems
Store water
155
Vines
Clinging and climbing | Don't need thick stems for support
156
Woody trunks
Strength and support | Height
157
Rhizomes
Vegetative asexual reproduction
158
Thorns
Protection from herbivores
159
Leaves
Collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis
160
Leaf variation
Vary in size, shape, arrangement on stems Non flowering have microphylls, fronds, and needles Flowering have a blades and a petiole
161
Microphylls
Tiny leaves of club mosses | First leaves to evolve
162
Fronds
Finely divided leaves of ferns
163
Needles
Thin, pointed leaves of conifers Thick cuticle to reduce water loss Lots of chlorophyll for maximum absorption of sunlight
164
Flowering plant leaf variations
``` Whorls Basal rosettes Alternate/opposing Simple Compound ```
165
Whorled leaves
Encircle upright stems at intervals | Collect sunlight from all directions
166
Basal rosette leaves
Take advantage of warm temperatures near the ground
167
Alternate and opposing paired leaves
Collect light from above | Found on plants with single, upright stem
168
Simple leaves
Not divided | Provides maximum surface for collecting sunlight
169
Compound leaves
``` Divided into many smaller leaflets Reduces wind resistance and water loss Pinnately compound Palmately compound Doubly compound ```
170
Leaf structures
``` Epidermis Xylem Phloem Mesophyll Guard cells Stoma ```
171
Epidermis- leaf
Single layer of tightly packed dermal cells | Prevent evaporation of water form the leaf
172
Guard Cells- leaf
Swell or shrink by taking in water through osmosis | Open and close stomata
173
Stomata
Tiny pores in epidermis that control transpiration and gas exchange in the air
174
Mesophyll
Makes up most of the leafs interior Where photosynthesis occurs Consists mainly of parenchymal cells which chloroplasts
175
Stomata Structure
Flanked by guard cells | Guard cells have nucleus and chloroplasts
176
Deciduous plants
Plan spots that shed their leaves seasonally to prevent water loss and grows them back again later in the year
177
Evergreen
Plant that does not lose its leaves seasonally and stays green year round
178
Animals
Heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes with cells that lack cell walls Member of the animal kingdom
179
Characteristics of Animals
Detect environmental stimuli- sensory nerve cells Can move during some point of life- muscles and nerves Internal digestion of food- special tissues and organs
180
Major phyla of the animal kingdom
``` Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelminthes Nematoda Mollusca Annelida Arthropoda Echinodermata Chordata ```
181
Invertebrates
Animals without a vertebral column/backbone
182
Vertebrates
Animals with a vertebral column/backbone
183
Vertebral column
Backbone | Bony support structure that runs down the back of a vertebrate animal
184
Ancestors of earliest animals
Protists
185
Choanoflagellate and Choanocyte relationship
The Choanoflagellate protist cell and Choanocyte sponge cell look a lot alike Leads to the theory that animals developed from Protista
186
Adaptions that led to vertebrates
``` Tissues, organs, and organ systems Symmetrical body Brain and sensory organs Fluid filled body cavity Complete digestive system Body divided into segments ```
187
Exoskeleton
Non bony skeleton that forms on the outside of the body of some invertebrates and provides protection and support
188
Chordates
All animals that have a notochord, hollow nerve cord, tail, and gill slits at some point in their life
189
Notochord
Stiff support rod that runs from one end of the body to the other in animals called chordates
190
Evolution of vertebrates
Evolved from chordates 550 mya Evolved back bone and a cranium to protect the skull Went on land 365 mya
191
Tetrapods
Vertebrates with four legs
192
Terrestrial
Animal that lives on land
193
Sensory organs
Organs that can sense environmental stimuli such as light, sound, and touch May direct the body to respond
194
Evolution of amniotes
Amphibians moved to land but had to lay eggs in water | Developed an amniote egg that did not have to be laid in water
195
Amniote
Animals that produce eggs with internal membranes that allow gasses but not water to pass through so the embryo can breathe without drying out
196
Characteristics of invertabrates
``` Lack a backbone Don't have any bones Incomplete or complete digestion Move Nervous system Most reproduce sexually-may go through larval stages ```
197
Mouth
One of two openings in a digestive tract that is used to take in food
198
Anus
One of two openings in a digestive tract that is used to excrete wastes
199
Sense organ
Part of a jellyfish's nervous system that allows it to sense and respond to its environment
200
Stomach
Organ of the digestive system
201
Incomplete digestive system
Digestive system that consists of a digestive cavity and a single opening that is both mouth and anus
202
Complete digestive system
Digestive system consisting of a digestive tract and two body openings, a mouth and an anus
203
How do invertebrates move
Carried along by water currents Contract muscles and move independently Specialized appendages such as legs or wings
204
Tentacle
Appendage on some invertebrates such as the jellyfish, which can be used to sting or for other things
205
Nerve net
A network of nerves on an invertebrates that can sense touch
206
Invertebrate nervous system
Most have one Allows them to sense and respond to their environment Some simple like a nerve net Others more complicate like brains
207
Cephalization
Concentration of nerve tissue in one end of an animal, forming a head region
208
Bilateral symmetry
Symmetry in which there are distinct head and tail ends, so the body can be divided into left and right halves
209
Radial symmetry
Symmetry in which there is a distinct tip and bottom but not distinct head and tail ends, so the body can be divided in halves like a pie
210
Larva
Juvenile, or immature, stage of an animal, where it differs in form and function from the adult form of the animal
211
Endoderm
Inner embryonic cell layer in animals
212
Ectoderm
Outer embryonic cell layer in animals
213
Mesoderm
Embryonic cell layer in many animals that is between the endoderm and ectoderm
214
Segmentation
Division of an animal body into multiple segments
215
Porifera
Invertebrate phylum of sponges Non bony endoskeleton Sessile as adults
216
Sessile
Animal that cannot move
217
Motile
Animal that can move
218
Structure and function of sponges
``` Tubes, fans, cones, blobs Live in colonies Adults are sessile Endoskeleton Rootlike projections anchor them to ground ```
219
Collar cells
Cells that filter out edible minerals from water in filter feeders Have tiny hairs that trap particles
220
Spicules
Short sharp rods that grow in specialized cells on sponges and make up its endoskeleton
221
Endoskeleton
Internal skeleton that provides protection and support
222
Filter feeders
Animal that obtains organic matter for nutrition by filtering particles out of the water
223
How sponges feed
They are filter feeders
224
Sponge reproduction
Sponge produces eggs and sperm | Adult-free swimming larva-young sponge-adult
225
Cnidaria
Invertebrate phylum Characterized by radial symmetry, tissues, nematocyst Ex. Jellyfish and corals
226
Nematocyst
Long, thin, coiled stinger used to attack prey or defend against predators
227
Medusa
Body plan in cnidarians | Bell shaped and typically motile
228
Polyp
Body plan in cnidarians | Tubular in shape and typically sessile
229
Cnidarians life cycle
Both medusa and polyp may reproduce sexually or asexually | May transfer between polyp and medusa forms
230
Ecology of cnidarians
``` Found in almost all ocean habitats Shallow or deep Warm or cold A few in freshwater Alone or in colonies ```
231
Asexual vs. sexual reproduction in cnidarians
Asexual leads to same form (medusa or polyp) | Sexual leads to opposite form
232
Parts of a nucleotide
Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate group Nitrogen containing base (A, T, C, or G)
233
Systematics
Study of the diversification of living things and the relationships animals have through time
234
Purines
Bases A and G | Have one ring
235
Pyrimidines
Bases C, T, and U
236
DNA Polymerase
Enzyme that unzips DNA so it can be read
237
Microspheres
Early life form
238
Cyanobacteria
Early life form
239
Coacervates
Early life forms
240
Origin of heredity
Where everyone gets their genes from- common ancestor | Early life form
241
Aristotle
Early scientist
242
Language for classification
Latin
243
Origin of species
Speciation- where species come from
244
Plant cell structure
``` Mitochondria Golgi apparatus Smooth ER Ribosomes Nucleus Rough ER Cytoplasm Vacuole Chloroplast Cell membrane Cell Wall ```
245
Flower
Structure in angiosperms consisting of male and female reproductive structures that attracts animal pollinators
246
Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes
``` Both DNA Eukaryotic Nucleus More membrane bound structures ```
247
Watson and Crick
Given credit for discovering double helix shape of DNA.
247
Characteristics of vascular plants
Have vascular tissues that transport water and minerals Vascular tissues form tubes Xylem Phloem

Biology Final 2 (1 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions