BIO 225 EXAM 3 Flashcards
0
Q
In the electron transport chain, electrons get passed down to what?
A
O2, which is the final electron acceptor
1
Q
Aerobic respiration happens where?
A
Plasma membrane
2
Q
In the electron transport chain, where do the H+ (protons) go?
A
They get ejected outside the plasma membrane.
3
Q
What happens when the H+ protons get ejected outside the plasma membrane?
A
They become concentrated outside and want to come in (diffusion), they go through turnstyle motion back into cell and ATP is made
4
Q
In fermentation, streptococcus, lactobacillus, and bacillus make what?
A
Lactic acid
5
Q
In fermentation, saccharomyces (yeast) make what?
A
Ethanol and CO2
6
Q
In fermentation, propionibacterium make what?
A
Propionic acid, acetic acid, CO2, and H2
7
Q
In fermentation, clostridium make what?
A
Butyric acid, butanol, acetone, isopropyl alcohol, and CO2
8
Q
What do anaerobic processes produce?
A
Nasty, smelley by-products–usually gas
9
Q
What species causes gas gangrene?
A
Clostridium perfringens
10
Q
What does clostridium perfringens cause?
A
Gas gangrene
11
Q
Are clostridium species aerobic or anerobic?
A
Anerobic
12
Q
Who is susceptible to getting gas gangrene?
A
Diabetics because of poor circulation, nerve damage, and lessened pain sensation
13
Q
How do doctors diagnose gas gangrene?
A
Odors, specimen collection, and x-ray for pockets of gas
14
Q
What is the treatment for gas gangrene?
A
Remove dead tissues, sometimes amputation, hyperbaric chamber
15
Q
In fermentation, what do escherichia /salmonella make?
A
Ethanol, lactic acid, succinc acid, CO2 and H2
16
Q
In fermentation, what do enterobacter make?
A
CO2, H2, ethanol, lactic acid, formic acid, butanediol, and acetonin
17
Q
If a patient presents with a covered wound and when uncovered it has a nasty smell, what could doctor assume?
A
That there are dead cells and some sort of anerobic process going on
18
Q
What about other food sources other than glucose to run pathways?
A
Other foods can run same pathways, all of them!
19
Q
How do bacteria grow?
A
Increase in population size, not in physical size
20
Q
In binary fission, one cell divides into how many?
A
2
21
Q
What is the process called in which one cell divides into 2?
A
Binary fission
22
Q
Why is the attachment of the chromosome important?
A
To ensure new chromosome ends up in both daughter cells
23
Q
What is generation (doubling) time?
A
How long it takes for generation to occur
24
What is the fastest known generation time? Which species?
8 minutes, pseudomonius
25
What do you multiply by when calculating generation/doubling time?
2
26
Why do anaerobes grow slower?
They make less ATP
27
Equation #2
If inoculated soup with 15,000 bacteria to start and has a generation/doubling time of 30 minutes, after 10 hours of being left out how many bacteria are there?
Nt=No X 2 to the n
Nt=# of cells at time t (10 hours)
No=# of cells at start (15,000)
2 to the n=# of generations
10 hours=2 generations per hour time 10 hours = 20
N10=15,000 X 2 to the 20
15,000 X 1048526
15,729,000,000 (1.5729 X 10 to the 10)
28
Equation # 1----generation/doubling time
2 to the n (number of cells at nth generation)
2 to the 4th
Equals 16 cells
29
What is metabolism?
All chemical reactions that occur in a cell/organism (catabolism + anabolism)
30
What is catabolism?
Breakdown of food molecules to produce energy and molecular subunits (ex: amino acids form proteins)
31
What is anabolism?
Building of macromolecules that an organism needs (ex: proteins from subunits or DNA form nucleotides)
32
Enzymes carry out their jobs following step by step, true or false?
True
33
What is feedback inhibition?
Shutting off biochemical pathway
34
How many jobs do enzymes carry out?
Each enzyme carries out a single job
35
Each enzyme has one job to do, this equals how many reactions?
One!
36
An enzyme either does _____ or _______ to chemical bonds?
Makes or breaks
37
Almost all enzymes are what?
Proteins
38
There are a few RNA molecules that are called what?
Ribozymes
39
Words that end with -ase are what?
Enzymes
40
What determines function of an enzyme?
Shape
41
At the active site, E + S get together at some moment and form what?
Then work begins to make what?
E + S (enzyme plus substrate) get together at some moment to form COMPLEX
Then work begins to make PRODUCT
42
Enzymes can work over and over and over, true or false?
True
43
What 4 things affects enzyme activity?
Temperature
pH
Substrate concentration
Inhibitors
44
If an enzyme is denatured, what happens?
It unfolds
45
Once an enzyme is denatured, can it be repaired?
No, once an enzyme is denatured it's done and ruined
46
How does temperature effect enzymes?
Enzymatic activity increases with increasing temperature until the enzyme (a protein) is denatured by the heat (enzyme can only do it's job so fast as activity increases), if temp becomes too high reaction rate falls steeply and just a few degrees will denature enzymes
47
Do enzymes work slower or faster at lower temps?
Slower
48
How does pH effect enzymes?
If pH is not at the optimum level, the enzyme will denature
49
In pH what gets added to become basic?
OH-
50
In pH, what gets added to become acidic?
H+
51
How does substrate concentration affect enzymes?
With increasing concentration of substrate molecules, the rate of reaction increases until the active sites on all the enzymes are at capacity
Think of I love Lucy example, they can only fill candy boxes so fast!!!
52
What are inhibitors in enzyme activity?
Chemicals that stop reaction
53
What two chemicals inhibit the folic acid pathway?
TMP & SMZ/SMX
54
Why are the chemicals that inhibit the folic acid pathway a great target for antibiotics?
Because we don't make folic acid so antibiotics that inhibit this pathway do not have a ton of side effects for us
55
What does fluoride do?
Fluoride is an enzyme inhibitor that kills bacteria in your mouth
56
How do you measure dry weight of bacteria?
Take a volume of bacterial solution and dump in a weighed aluminum pan and bake until water evaporates and weight of pan after is dry. Weight of bacteria minus weight of pan is the dry weight.
57
What is one definite problem with dry weight?
The count is not particularly accurate.
58
What do you test for when testing for metabolic activity? Who uses this indirect counting technique?
Testing for ATP because only live bacteria will produce ATP. Industries use this who produce food, don't want bacteria on the production line and can't possibly test otherwise.
59
What does turbidity test?
Indirect count that tests cloudiness of sample
60
If a bacterial sample of 1mL is cloudy how many cells can we assume are in there?
1,000,000
61
What type of instrument does the turbidity method of indirect bacteria use?
Spectrophotometer
62
If you use turbidity technique what do you have to do so you know your tolerance readings to make sure you get an accurate count?
Set up standard curve experiment, to record time, absorbance reading and count cells using another method so as long as conditions remain the same you can always use graph to know how many cells in spectrophotometer.
63
What is the advantage of using the turbidity technique?
Accurate however takes time to set up for graph. Very fast after graph is set up.
64
What is an example of a selective medium?
Mannitol salt agar
65
What are the four phases of bacterial growth?
Lag, log, stationary, death
66
In the lag phase, what happens?
No change in the number of cells, they are adjusting to their environment.
67
In the log phase, what happens?
Exponential increase in population;logarithmic growth
68
Which phase is the happy phase for bacteria?
Log, because they are growing!
69
What happens in the stationary phase?
Bacteria are running out of food, it's a period of equilibrium where
microbial deaths balance production of new cells
70
In the death phase, what happens?
Population is decreasing at logarithmic rate
71
Does it take time for bacterial population to die down? Yes or no
Yes
72
True or false, there are always a
| Few bacterial cells left behind even after an infection clears up?
True, remember example of man who died from staph infection 50 years after shrapnel wound in battle
73
What is a batch culture?
This is what we grow in lab, the medium will eventually run out.
74
What is a continuous culture?
For example, bacteria in industry that make isopropyl alcohol, the company will continue to grow bacteria but have to check for contamination, they figure out the flow rate so they can keep them growing
75
What are the counting methods for counting bacterial populations?
Direct and Indirect
Microscopic count using hemacytometer (Petriff Houser counting chamber
Plate counts using dilution series
Filtration
Coulter counter
Dry weight
Metabolic activity-swab for ATP
Turbidity
76
10 uL means what?
10 micrometers
77
When should you not use the hemacytometer ( Petroff Houser counting chamber?
Lots of samples will take time and can be tedious
Can't use if you need to make sure cells are alive
You need lots of cells in a little liquid
78
What are advantages if hemacytometer counting?
Fast
Inexpensive
No in-depth training required
79
If a suspension is cloudy, how many cells could you assume are in there?
At least 1,000,000
80
How many mL do the tubes get in a dilution series?
Each gets 9mL of saline and 1 mL of bacterial solution, first tube from testing solution, the remaining tubes from the previous tube.
81
In the dilution series, how many tubes do you make?
Since you don't know what you are starting with, you would have to go past 5 tubes if you have no idea
82
After incubation in a dilution series count, which plate do you choose?
The one that has between 30 and 300 colonies.
83
What are the dilution series ratios?
First tube is 1:10, then goes from there out adding a zero for each tube:
1: 10
1: 100
1: 1000
1: 10000
1: 100000
1: 1000000
84
How do you calculate the number of bacteria in the dilution series count?
of colonies on the plate (the one with 30-300) x the reciprocal of dilution sample.
Ex: 32 colonies on plate of 1:10000 dilution = 32 x 10000=320000 bacteria
85
What are advantages of dilution series?
No expensive
Not a lot of training required
Counting LIVE cells
Accurate count with practice
86
What is main disadvantage of dilution series counting?
Takes incubation time, if you need count right away don't use this.
87
What type of count is used on water samples?
Filtration
88
In filtration count, what do you need for test to work?
A few cells in a large volume of liquid
89
How does filtration count work?
Water poured through filter and suction pulls it over the filter, bacteria get trapped on filter paper, put in Petri dish, add nutrient medium, incubate and count colonies the next day.
90
What are advantages of filtration method of counting bacteria?
Not expensive
Not a lot of training required
Makes sterile liquid because bacteria are being trapped on filter
91
What are the disadvantages of the filtration method of counting bacteria?
Same as dilution series----you have to wait on incubation time
If there are a lot of cells in your suspension this method won't work.
92
What is required for Coulter counter method to work?
Requires a nice and clean cell suspension....this way will not work for a messy clinical specimen.
93
What is coulter counter only used to count?
Bacteria
94
What is added to label the cells to use the Coulter counter?
Fluorochromes
95
Where are Coulter counters primarily used?
Hospital setting
96
What are the two main types of patients the coulter counter method is used for?
1. WBCs for cancer patients, docs need to know specifically how many WBCs leukemia patients have
2. HIV+ patients, it's only way to differentiate B and T cells
97
The Coulter counter can be used in what type of therapy?
Immunotherapy---it isolates CD4+ T cells, they can be supercharged and injected back into the patient to fight cancer
98
What are the disadvantages of using coulter counter?
Very expensive
Highly specialized training required
Requires clean specimens
99
Coulter counter is the only method to isolate specific cells that
Are needed in immunotherapy, true or false?
True
100
What temperature do thermophiles like?
>50C
They are heat loving
101
In which group will you not find pathogens?
Thermophiles because our body temp is 37C but they could cause environmental problems.
102
What is the name of the bacterial group that likes the temperature between 15C and 50C?
Mesophiles
103
Are mesophiles pathogens? Yes or no.
Yes
104
What temperature do psychrophiles like?
Less than 15C
105
What are the growth requirements for microbes?
Temperature
pH
Osmotic Pressure
Oxygen
106
What type of bacteria can multiply at zero degrees?
Listeria monocytogenes
107
Listeria monocytogenes usually doesn't affect healthy adults, who does it affect?
Fetus
108
What is the danger zone range for potential rapid growth of bacteria in food?
40C-140C
109
What temperature should you keep your Refridgerator below?
40C
110
What is the name of the acid-loving bacterial group?
Acidophiles
111
What are acidophiles harmful to?
The environment, usually aren't pathogenic to us
112
What is osmotic pressure?
The number of solutes in a solution.
113
What is the name of the salt-living bacterial group?
Halophiles
114
Where do you find halophiles?
In saltiest bodies of water where you will find nothing else growing.
115
Where do obligate aerobes grow?
They need air exchange so they will be on the surface of the liquid filled tube.
116
Where will obligate anaerobes grow?
They do not like oxygen so they will he at the bottom of the tube.
117
Where will an aerotolerant anaerobe grow?
They will grow all throughout the tube, they can tolerate oxygen at different levels.
118
Where will a microaerophilic bacteria grow?
They are little O2 loving so they will move towards the top where the oxygen level is ideal for them.
119
How does a facultative anaerobe work?
They would rather be aerobic BUT will switch to anerobic when they have to.
120
What is an example of a facultative anaerobe?
E. Coli
121
What type of infection will Camphylobacter jejuni cause?
Food Bourne illness more prevalent than salmonella
122
Why did it take a long time to identify Camphylobacter jejuni?
Because it won't grow in a regular
| incubator, has to grow in special incubator that pumps in CO2 gas or nitrogen and take out some O2.
123
What is the incubation temp of Camphylobacter jejuni? Why?
42C because that is the body temp of a chicken
124
What are the two enzymes needed to survive in the presence of O2?
Catalyse and Peroxidase
125
What do catalyse and Peroxidase break down?
H2O2 into H2O and O2
126
If you have SOD what must
| You also have present?
Peroxidase and catalyse
127
Which arrive has all three enzymes: catalyse, Peroxidase, and SOD?
Obligate aerobe
128
If O2 has an extra electron is it reactive?
Yes and it's denoted with a negative sign
129
If O2 has a dot next to it, what does that mean?
It means the O2 is at a higher energy state and it's reactive
130
What does SOD combat?
Free radicals, which happen in an aerobic environment
131
What species of bacteria like anerobic conditions?
Any clostridium species
132
What is a gas pack?
A pack that uses up the O2 to create an anerobic environment for anerobic bacteria to grow.
133
What can you use besides a gas pack to create an anerobic environment to grow anerobic bacteria?
Mayo jar with candle...the candle will use up the O2
Glove box, used in labs it's a box where everything you need is already in an anerobic box and you use gloves built in to handle everything
134
What 4 nutrients are needed to grow bacteria?
Carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulfur
135
What are trace minerals?
Minerals that make enzymes work correctly ex: magnesium, iron
136
What is defined media?
You know exact chemical composition
137
What is complex media?
Media that we use in lab, has various nutrient ingredients
138
What is selective medium?
It encourages the growth of some bacteria but inhibits growth of others
139
What is a differential medium?
You get different reactions on the medium based on species of growth.
140
What is an example of a selective media?
Mannitol salt agar
141
What is an example of a differential medium?
Blood agar
142
What does alpha hemolysis look like on blood agar?
You see growth and a greenish tinge because the bacteria partially broke down the hemoglobin
Ex:Streptococcus species
143
What does beta hemolysis look like on blood agar?
Complete breakdown of hemoglobin, all the red is gone on growth area
Ex:staphylococcus species
144
What does gamma hemolysis growth look like on blood agar?
Growth but no hemoglobin color change
145
When is a special medium required?
For example, if you are trying to find bacteria that will clean up an oil spill, you would go to auto shop and use the oldest, dirtiest motor oil, isolate the bacteria and use a special medium made with used dirty motor oil to feed them. This is what they eat!
146
What is the chemical formula for glucose?
C6H12O6
147
What are the 4 parts of the pathway of aerobic respiration?
Glycolysis
Pyruvates
Acetyl-CoA
Electron transport chain
148
What is made and how many after glycolysis?
2 ATP & 2 NADH
149
What is made at step two, the oxidation of Pyruvate?
2 NADH
150
What is made and how many at the Acetyl-CoA step?
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
151
How many ATP are made at step 4, the electron transport step?
34 ATP
152
At the end of the aerobic respiration steps, how many ATP are made?
38
153
How many ATP are made in anerobic respiration?
2-37
154
What pathways does anerobic respiration use?
Same as aerobic but with less steps
155
What is the ONLY type of energy molecule enzymes can use?
ATP
156
How many ATPs are made in fermentation?
2
157
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?
Oxygen
158
O2 takes away hydrogens to make water and through a series of steps makes what?
ATP
159
What acts as the final electron acceptor in anerobic respiration?
Carbon
Sulfur
Nitrogen
160
What are some of the by products in anerobic respiration?
Methane gas
Ammonia
Hydrogen sulfide
161
What are some of the wastes in fermentation?
Acids
Gases
Alcohols
162
One single glucose molecule makes how many ATPs?
38
163
What are the waste products in aerobic respiration?
Water
| CO2
164
At the end of the Krebs cycle, step 3 in aerobic respiration, what is gone?
Glucose
165
At the end of the Krebs cycle (step 3, Acetyl-CoA) how many total ATPs have been made?
4 ATPs total, two from glycolysis and two additional from Krebs cycle (Acetyl-CoA)
