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MCAT Biology > Bio 2 Lecture 1: The Cell > Flashcards

Bio 2 Lecture 1: The Cell Flashcards

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1
Q

What is taxonomy?

A

naming system for organisms

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2
Q

What are the 8 groupings in taxonomy?

A

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

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3
Q

What are the 3 domains?

A

Bacteria

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4
Q

What 4 kingdoms are in Eukarya domain?

A

Protista

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5
Q

All animals belong to what class and phylum?

A

Mammalia

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6
Q

What is a species?

A

all organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring with each other

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7
Q

What are 3 reasons why organisms can be prevented from producing fertile offspring?

A

temporal isolation

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8
Q

What is temporal isolation?

A

mating in different seasons

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9
Q

What is geographic isolation?

A

living in different areas of planet

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10
Q

What is genetic incompatibility?

A

not have compatible gametes to produce fertile offspring

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11
Q

What is speciation?

A

formation of a new species

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12
Q

What process does NOT lead to speciation?

A

inbreeding

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13
Q

What is inbreeding?

A

mating of relatives which increases the number of homozygous individuals without changing allele frequency

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14
Q

What is outbreeding?

A

mating of non-relatives

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15
Q

What is a bottleneck situation?

A

random events where some members of species may die etc.; allelic frequencies of the population shift

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16
Q

What is specialization?

A

members of a species change their behaviors to exploit their environment

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17
Q

What is adaption?

A

genetic or behavioral change that is advantageous in the environment

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18
Q

What does it mean if a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

A

no evolution can happen

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19
Q

What are the 5 features of the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium?

A
  1. mutational equilibrium
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20
Q

What is mutational equilibrium?

A

rate of forward mutations equals rate of backward mutations

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21
Q

Evolutionary time can be measured by?

A

gradual random changes in the genome

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22
Q

Why?

A

NAME?

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23
Q

What is the fitness concept?

A

fittest organism survives best to reproduce offspring

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24
Q

The success of a gene can be measured as its?

A

increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next generation

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25
Q

What is differential reproduction?

A

NAME?

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26
Q

What are viruses?

A

tiny infectious agents

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27
Q

What is the main structure of a virus?

A

capsid, nucleic acid, lipid-rich protein envelope

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28
Q

Viruses have the ability to transfer?

A

genetic info

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29
Q

What is a capsid?

A

protein coat with DNA and RNA

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30
Q

Viruses do NOT contain:

A

both DNA and RNA; only 1

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31
Q

What is a viral particle?

A

mature virus outside the host cell

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32
Q

why?

A

NAME?

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33
Q

How do viruses and nuclei differ?

A

NAME?

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34
Q

What is the host cell?

A

cell being infected

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35
Q

What is the receptor?

A

glycoprotein on the host cell membrane

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36
Q

Viral infection begins when?

A

virus binds to chemical receptor site on host cell

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37
Q

What is a bacteriophage?

A

virus that infects bacteria

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38
Q

Bacteriophages inject nucleic acids into host cells through?

A

tails

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39
Q

What does a bacteriophage contain?

A

tail

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40
Q

Many what ? can fit inside bacteriophage?

A

mitochondria

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41
Q

What are the 4 main steps to bacteriophage infection?

A
  1. landing
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42
Q

Exception?

A

NAME?

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43
Q

Once virus is in the cell, what are the 2 possible paths?

A

lysogenic infection

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44
Q

What happens in a lytic infection?

A

NAME?

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45
Q

What is the latent period?

A

period from infection to lysis

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46
Q

What is a virulent virus?

A

virus following a lytic cycle that is capable of causing disease

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47
Q

What happens in a lysogenic infection?

A

viral DNA is incorporated into host genome; when host cell replicates its DNA also replicates viral DNA

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48
Q

May show?

A

NAME?

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49
Q

When does it become active?

A

NAME?

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50
Q

The viral envelope protects the virus from?

A

detection by immune system

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51
Q

What is the main difference between enveloped viruses and noneveloped viruses?

A

-enveloped don’t cause cell to die right away, may die eventually due to degradation of its membrane

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52
Q

RNA viruses replicate via?

A

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP)

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53
Q

What does the RdRP do?

A

synthesize a new strand of RNA from a previously existing RNA strand

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54
Q

What RNA strands code for proteins?

A

NAME?

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55
Q

If a virus contains -RNA, it must undergo?

A

one replication by RdRP to form +RNA to code for proteins

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56
Q

What are retroviruses?

A

single stranded RNA viruses able to transcribe RNA into double stranded DNA

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57
Q

The retrovirus reverse transcription is carried out by?

A

reverse transcriptase

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58
Q

What is a common example of a retrovirus?

A

HIV

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59
Q

What are subviral particles?

A

infectious agents related to viruses

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60
Q

What 2 things do subviral particles include?

A

viroids

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61
Q

Only infect?

A

small rings of naked RNA without capsids

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62
Q

Capable of doing what?

A

NAME?

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63
Q

Prokaryotes do NOT have?

A

complex, membrane bound organelle, including nuclei

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64
Q

Prokaryotes are split into what 2 domains?

A

Bacteria

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65
Q

Found in?

A

eukaryotes

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66
Q

Prokaryotes have a single circular double stranded molecule of DNA twisted into?

A

supercoils and associated with histones in Archaea and proteins in Bacteria

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67
Q

What is a nucleoid?

A

complex of DNA, RNA and proteins in prokaryotes

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68
Q

Bacteria come in what 3 shapes?

A

cocci (spherical)

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69
Q

Spiral/helical bacteria are called ? if they are flexible?

A

spirochetes

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70
Q

What is a symbiotic relationship?

A

mutually beneficial

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71
Q

What is a parasitic relationship?

A

relationship is beneficial to bacteria but hurts other organism

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72
Q

Prokaryotes can be both?

A

anaerobic or aerobic

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73
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

phospholipid bilayer that surrounds cytosol of prokaryotes

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74
Q

Each phospholipid is composed of what 3 things?

A

phosphate group

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75
Q

What is called a protoplast?

A

bacterial plasma membrane and everything it contains

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76
Q

What is the bacterial envelope?

A

surrounds the protoplast

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77
Q

What are the cell walls of bacteria made of?

A

peptidoglycan

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78
Q

Peptidoglycan consists of?

A

disaccharide polymer chains with amino acids connected by an interbridge of more amino acids/cross links

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79
Q

The cell wall of bacteria is?

A

porous, allows large molecules to pass through

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80
Q

What does penicillin attack?

A

amino acid crosslinks of peptidoglycan

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81
Q

What is gram staining?

A

used to prepare bacteria for viewing which stains 2 major cell wall types differently

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82
Q

What do gram-positive bacteria have?

A

peptidoglycan is thick and on the outside

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83
Q

What is periplasmic space?

A

space between plasma membrane and cell wall

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84
Q

What do gram-negative bacteria contain?

A

-smaller amount of peptidoglycan located between 2 membranes

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85
Q

Some gram-negative bacteria possess?

A

fimbriae/pili

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86
Q

What are bacterial flagella?

A

long, hollow, rigid, helical cylinders made from flagellin

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87
Q

What kind of protein is flagellin?

A

globular

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88
Q

What does this allow?

A

NAME?

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89
Q

What is it propelled using?

A

NAME?

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90
Q

What is the chemotaxis?

A

the directed movement toward substances that will promote survival of bacterium

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91
Q

Bacteria under go what cell division?

A

binary fission

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92
Q

What happens in it?

A

NAME?

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93
Q

What are the 3 other forms of genetic recombination that allows bacteria to trade DNA?

A

transformation

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94
Q

Bacteria increases by?

A

exponential growth

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95
Q

Binary fission results in?

A

2 genetically identical daughter cells

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96
Q

What is conjugation?

A

transfer of a plasmid

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97
Q

What are plasmids?

A

circles of extragenomic DNA; can exist and replicate independently from bacterial chromosome

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98
Q

What is an episome?

A

plasmid that can integrate into chromosome

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99
Q

In order for a bacterium to initiate conjugation, it must contain?

A

conjugative plasmid

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100
Q

Conjugative plasmid possesses gene for?

A

sex pillus

101
Q

What are the 2 main types of plasmids?

A

F plasmid

102
Q

What is the F plasmid?

A

fertility factor which codes for sex pilus

103
Q

What is the R plasmid?

A

donates resistance to certain antibiotics

104
Q

ex?

A

NAME?

105
Q

What is transduction?

A

transfer of genetic material by a virus

106
Q

The virus that mediates transduction is called a?

A

vector

107
Q

What are transposons?

A

pieces of DNA that can move from one place to another on the genome

108
Q

What are the main steps of retrovirus injection?

A
  1. retrovirus injects viral RNA into host cell
109
Q

Most animal viruses enter host cells through?

A

receptor-mediated endocytosis

110
Q

How are animal viruses different from bacteriophages?

A

animal viruses don’t leave capsids outside host cells

111
Q

What is the fluid surrounding nucleus called?

A

nucleoplasm

112
Q

What is the nuclear envelope?

A

double phospholipid bilayer wrapped around nucleus

113
Q

The nuclear envelope is perforated with?

A

nuclear pores

114
Q

what can’t?

A

RNA

115
Q

What is the nucleolus?

A

area in nucleus where rRNA is transcribed and subunits of ribosomes are assembled

116
Q

Proteins that will be ultimately exported from the cell are translated on?

A

the ER

117
Q

The movement of a protein from the cytosol to the ER is an example of?

A

signal sequence

118
Q

The ER separates the cytosol from?

A

the ER lumen or cisternal space

119
Q

Synthesizes all proteins that don’t belong in?

A

NAME?

120
Q

And then sent to the ?

A

ER lumen

121
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus?

A

like an assembly line

122
Q

What are transport vesicles?

A

bud off from the ER and carry proteins to the Golgi

123
Q

Golgi may alter proteins by what 2 things?

A

glycosylation

124
Q

What is glycosylation?

A

addition of a carbohydrate

125
Q

What are the end products of the Golgi?

A

vesicles full of proteins

126
Q

Release contents through?

A

enzymes, growth factors, etc.

127
Q

What is constitutive secretion?

A

secretory vesicles are continuously released

128
Q

What is regulated secretion?

A

release secretory vesicles in response to chemical or electrical stimuli

129
Q

What do lysosomes contain?

A

hydrolytic enzymes that digest substances taken in by endocytosis

130
Q

What are acid hydrolases?

A

hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes

131
Q

What do lysosomes come from?

A

Golgi apparatus

132
Q

ER that lacks ribosomes is called?

A

smooth ER

133
Q

Smooth ER does what 3 functions?

A

lipid metabolism

134
Q

How do they grow?

A

NAME?

135
Q

What does the endosymbiotic theory say?

A

mitochondria may have evolved from symbiotic relationship between ancient prokaryotes and eukaryotes

136
Q

Mitochondria are surrounded by two ?

A

phospholipid bilayers

137
Q

What does the inner membrane of mitochondria do?

A

NAME?

138
Q

Prokaryotic flagella are made from?

A

-9+2 microtubule configuration

139
Q

Prokaryotic flagella have what kind of action?

A

whip-like action

140
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

network of filaments that determines structure and motility of the cell

141
Q

What are the 3 basic parts of the cytoskeleton?

A

microtubules

142
Q

What 2 things do microtubules provide?

A

platform for transport within cells

143
Q

Microtubules are made from what protein?

A

tubulin

144
Q

Microtubules have what 2 ends?

A

+ and -

145
Q

The - end of microtubules attach to?

A

microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

146
Q

What is the major MTOC in animal cells?

A

centrosome

147
Q

What 4 structures do microtubules make?

A

flagella of eukaryotes

148
Q

Flagella and cilia function to do what?

A

move fluid causing the cell or nearby substances to move

149
Q

What does the protein dynein do?

A

NAME?

150
Q

What are microfilaments?

A

-actin filaments; interact with myosin to cause muscle contraction

151
Q

ex?

A

maintain cell’s shapes

152
Q

What is active transport?

A

anytime compound moves against electrochemical gradient across a membrane

153
Q

What do facilitated and passive transport do?

A

go down the concentration gradient

154
Q

Hydrolytic enzymes are activated by?

A

activated by a low pH from pumping protons into interior

155
Q

Why would a pancreas have a well developed rough ER?

A

NAME?

156
Q

Where are peptide hormones synthesized?

A

rough ER

157
Q

The center of the phospholipid bilayer is?

A

hydrophilic

158
Q

What is a micelle?

A

spherical structure when amphipathic molecules aggregate turning their polar ends towards solution and nonpolar ends toward each other

159
Q

What may form if enough phospholipids are present in a solution that has ultrasonic vibrations?

A

liposomes may form

160
Q

What are leaflets?

A

inner and outer layer of membrane

161
Q

What is a liposome?

A

vesicle surrounded by aqueous solution with lipid bilayer

162
Q

Membranes must be?

A

spontaneously

163
Q

why?

A

NAME?

164
Q

What are integral or intrinsic proteins?

A

amphipathic proteins that can cross the membrane from the inside of the cell to the outside

165
Q

What are peripheral/extrinsic proteins?

A

located on the surface and are hydrophilic

166
Q

Both integral and peripheral proteins are what type of protein?

A

glycoproteins

167
Q

The model of the membrane is called the?

A

fluid mosaic model

168
Q

ex?

A

NAME?

169
Q

Movement of a molecule across a membrane depends on what 2 factors?

A

electrochemical gradient

170
Q

What is Brownian motion?

A

NAME?

171
Q

What is diffusion?

A

movement of one solution to the other

172
Q

Made of?

A

NAME?

173
Q

Points in the direction of ?

A

electrical gradient

174
Q

The chemical concentration gradient and the electrochemical gradient can be added to form?

A

electrochemical gradient for a specific solute

175
Q

What 2 things must be considered when predicting permeability of the membrane to a substance?

A

size

176
Q

What is passive diffusion?

A

molecules move through leakage channels across the membrane through random motion

177
Q

If molecules are too large or too polar to passively diffuse, they require assistant of?

A

carrier proteins or membrane channels

178
Q

ex?

A

lipid soluble

179
Q

What types of molecules require facilitated diffusion?

A

molecules that are too big or polar and require protein

180
Q

Active transport requires ?

A

ATP

181
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

allows ions to diffuse down electrochemical gradient created by another cellular mechanism (usually primary active transport)

182
Q

What can’t diffuse passively?

A

ions with full charge like Na+

183
Q

Most cells are what to their environment?

A

isotonic to their environment

184
Q

Define isotonic:

A

aqueous solution of their cytosol contains same concentration of particles as aqueous solution surrounding them

185
Q

What are hypertonic cells?

A

more concentrated than environment

186
Q

What are hypotonic cells?

A

less concentrated than environment

187
Q

Osmotic pressure is generated when?

A

overall concentration of molecules on either side of membrane are not equal

188
Q

What is osmotic pressure?

A

pulling pressure generated by concentration gradient which encourages osmosis

189
Q

Osmotic pressure is an example of what property?

A

colligative property

190
Q

What is the colligative property?

A

based on number of particles present rather than type of particle

191
Q

If the cell is hypotonic to environment, what happens?

A

water exits the cell and cell shrivels

192
Q

What are the 3 main types of endocytosis?

A

phagocytosis

193
Q

Once particle is engulfed, membrane bound body is called?

A

cell membrane protrudes out to envelop particulate matter

194
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

fluid engulfed by cell membrane

195
Q

What is receptor mediated endocytosis?

A

uptake of macromolecules like hormones and nutrients

196
Q

This invaginates to form a ?

A

clathrin coated pit

197
Q

What are the 5 stages of the life cycle of a somatic cell?

A

G-Growth

198
Q

What makes up interphase?

A

G1

199
Q

What happens in G1?

A

NAME?

200
Q

If not favorable cell enters?

A

S phase

201
Q

What is the main factor that triggers the beginning of S phase?

A

cell size

202
Q

What is the longest stage usually?

A

G1

203
Q

What is G0?

A

non-growing state distinct from interphase

204
Q

What happens in the S phase?

A

DNA replication

205
Q

What is M phase defined by?

A

division of the nucleus

206
Q

What happens in the G2 phase?

A

cell begins to divide

207
Q

What does the G2 checkpoint check for?

A

mitosis promoting factor

208
Q

Cells that can grow unchecked through the cell cycle can develop into?

A

cancer

209
Q

What are the 2 types of mutations that can cause cancer?

A

tumor repressor

210
Q

What does the tumor repressor do?

A

deactivation of a checkpoint protein

211
Q

What does the oncogene do?

A

activation of gene that causes proliferation of the cell

212
Q

Cells form groups of similar cells that work together called?

A

tissue

213
Q

What are fibroblasts?

A

cells that secrete fibrous proteins like elastin and collagen

214
Q

What do fibroblasts form?

A

extracellular matrix

215
Q

What is the extracellular matrix?

A

material that surrounds the cell and is formed by the cell itself

216
Q

What 3 molecules make up the animal cell matrices?

A

glycoaminoglycans and proteglycans

217
Q

What is the basal lamina?

A

thin sheet of matrix material that separates epithelial cells from support tissue

218
Q

What is the glycocalyx?

A

animal’s carbohydrate region analogous to the plant cell wall

219
Q

What are the 3 types of intercellular junctions that connect animal cells?

A

tight junctions

220
Q

Found where?

A

NAME?

221
Q

Tight junctions also act as a barrier to protein movement between?

A

apical and basolateral surface of the cell

222
Q

Not used for?

A

-join 2 cells at a single point

223
Q

Found where?

A

small tunnels that connect cells, allowing movement of small molecules and ions between cells

224
Q

Gap juntions can only allow communication between?

A

adjacent cells

225
Q

When cell needs to communicate with cell far away, it sends out a ?

A

hormone to be picked up by receptor on another cell

226
Q

Hormone binding to receptor can activate?

A

intracellular second messenger like cAMP, calmodulin etc.

227
Q

What are the 4 main types of tissue?

A

epithelial tissue

228
Q

What does epithelial tissue do?

A

separates free body surfaces from surroundings

229
Q

Tissue types work together to form?

A

organs

230
Q

What are systems?

A

organs that work together to perform a common function

231
Q

Sodium-potassium pump transports ions how?

A

transports both sodium and potassium against their concentration gradient

232
Q

why?

A

structures on the plasma membrane

233
Q

What is the strongest type of cellular adhesion?

A

desmosomes

234
Q

why?

A

G0

235
Q

What 3 things are used for cell to cell communication?

A

nuclear receptors

236
Q

to produce?

A

ribosomes

237
Q

If bacteria ends in -coccus, the shape is ?

A

round

238
Q

What does it produce in the liver?

A

-steroid hormone synthesis and metabolism; synthesis and breakdown of compounds; oxidizes foreign substances

239
Q

Muscle cells are primarily concerned with?

A

NAME?

240
Q

What type of organelles would they have large amounts of?

A

NAME?

241
Q

What 2 types of proteins are produced in the rough ER?

A

secretory and integral proteins

242
Q

Upregulation and down regulation of integral proteins probably occurs at what level?

A

level of gene expression or by post-translational modification

243
Q

How do phospholipids most likely affect integral proteins?

A

modulating structural conformation of them

244
Q

Proteins can only be synthesized in what 2 places?

A

rough ER

245
Q

What is an endogenous substance?

A

produced in the body

246
Q

Are ions hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

A

hydrophilic

247
Q

Ion channels are necessary for ion transport across a cell membrane because?

A

polar ions can’t pass through nonpolar bilayer

248
Q

Where are potassium channels synthesized?

A

rough ER because they are a protein

249
Q

Prokaryotic DNA is ? and lacks ?

A

histone proteins

MCAT Biology (1 decks)

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