Bio 1B Vocabulary Flashcards
1
Q
Struggle for Existence
A
2
Q
Phenotype
A
an individual’s observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type
3
Q
Heredity/Inheritance
A
4
Q
Natural Selection
A
5
Q
Evolution
A
6
Q
Variation
A
- Variation is random in the sense that it does not anticipate the “needs” of organisms (evolution is a process of trial and error)
- Variation produced is far from random
- E.g. in humans there is a lot of variation in height, but not the number of limbs
7
Q
Development
A
8
Q
Ecology
A
9
Q
Adaptation
A
The change (or the process of change) by which a population becomes better suited to its environment due to the action of natural selection; adaptation is a consequence of selection
10
Q
Fitness
A
11
Q
Trade-Off
A
12
Q
Genetic disease
A
13
Q
Sickle cell anemia
A
14
Q
Chromosome
A
15
Q
Allele
A
16
Q
Balancing selection
A
17
Q
Evolutionary Hitchhiking
A
traits are often correlated, thus non-selected traits can hitchhike along with the selected traits
18
Q
Stabilizing Selection
A
- Selection is keeping stable the phenotype, because it is stable there is no descent with modification (selective forces maintaining the phenotype, selecting against extreme phenotypes)
– Conflicting selective pressures, trade-offs are an inevitable consequence of living in a complex world - Dominant mode of selection on the phenotype
19
Q
Directional Selection
A
20
Q
Disruptive Selection
A
21
Q
Balancing Selection
A
Synonym to stabilizing selection
22
Q
Sexual Selection
A
23
Q
Drift/Phenotypic Drift/Genetic Drift
A
- Random effect
Genetic Drift: Evolution driven by chance is especially frequent in the genome- E.g. random changes in the frequency of alleles
- Neutral, slightly deleterious, and beneficial traits can be fixed or loss due to random chance
24
Q
Bottlenecks
A
- Random effect
Original population - chance survivors (catastrophic reduction in population)- new population- Population size reduced in the home range
- Bottlenecks can also result from selection (disease, introduction of a new predator)
25
Found effect
- Random effect
Small subset of individuals establish (found) a new colony
- Some individuals by chance not included in that subset and are thus lost in new population
- Different genetic constitution of the founding population is due to chance, not selection
- Structurally the same as bottleneck
- Note: The identity of the individuals that successfully migrate might also be due to selection, but the founder effect refers to cases where an immigrant's phenotype is due to chance
26
Adaptive Change
Natural selection, immigration, new mutations
27
Non-adaptive Change
Drift, bottlenecks, founder
28
Mutation/Mutation Rate
- Mutation is an incorrectly repaired replication error or direct damage
- Most mutation arises due to replication errors as the DNA is duplicated during cell division
- Environmental factors (called 'direct damage' below; e.g., cosmic rays, natural radioactivity, etc) are less important, in part because there is a lot of cellular machinery available to repair damage to DNA
29
Immigrations
30
Hardy-Weinberg
-foundational concept in population genetics that provides a mathematical model for understanding how allele and genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation in an ideal population.
-This principle acts as a critical baseline for studying the genetic structure of populations and observing how various forces, such as natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow, drive evolutionary changes.
31
Gene Flow
32
Genotype Frequency
33
Allele Frequency
34
Parthenogenesis
35
Bacteria
36
Archaea
37
Eukaryotes
38
Biological Species Concept
39
Ring Species
40
Cryptic Species
41
Morphological Species Concept
42
Chronospecies
43
Speciation
43
Type Specimen
44
Synonymy
45
Phyletic Change
46
Anagenesis
47
Cladogenesis
48
Allopatric Speciation
49
Sympatric Speciation
50
Dispersal
51
Vicariance
52
Polyploidy
53
Zygote
54
Prezygotic Barrier (to reproduction)
55
Postzygotic Barrier (to reproduction)
56
Habitat Isolation
57
Temporal Isolation
58
Behavioral Isolation
59
Mechanical Isolation
60
Gametic Isolation
61
Sterility
62
Hybrid Zone
63
Reinforcement
64
Taxon
65
Cladogram
66
Sister Group
67
Node
68
Apomorphy
69
Synapomorphy
70
Plesiomorphy
71
Sympleziomorphy
72
Autapomorphy
73
Homoplasy
74
Outgroup
75
Character Matrix
76
Principle of Parsimony
77
Cetacean
78
Long Branch Attraction
79
Maximum Likelihood
79
Statistical Inconsistency
80
Phylogram
81
Phylogeny
82
Taxonomies
83
Monophyletic Group
84
Paraphyletic Group
85
Polyphyletic Group
86
Homology
87
Convergence/Parallelism
88
Phylogenetic Species Concept
89
Molecular Clock
90
Neutral Evolution
91
Mutation versus Substitution
92
Synonymous versus Nonsynonymous mutation
93
Rate Smoothing/Relaxed Clock Analysis
93
Time Tree/Chronogram
94
Mitochondria
95
Chloroplast
96
Small Subunit Ribosomal RNA (SSI rRNA)
97
Macroevolution
98
Microevolution
99
Pre-adaptation
100
Vertebrate
101
Tetrapod
102
Lobe-finned fish
103
Acanthostega
104
Character Analysis
104
Lateral Line
105
Archaeopteryx
106
Compound Eye
107
Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)
108
Hydrothermal Vent
109
Planktotrophic larvae
110
Punctuated Equilibrium
111
Phyletic Gradualism
112
Varves
113
Species Sorting
114
Directed Speciation
115
Asymmetric Increase in Variance
116
End-Permian Mass Extinction
117
End-Cretaceous Mass Extinction
118
Iridium (anomaly)
119
Chicxulub Crater
120
Mantle Plume
121
Large Igneous Province (LIP)
122
Siberian Traps
123
Multicellularity
124
Cyanobacteria
125
Brown Algae
126
Red Algae
127
Slime Molds
128
Theia
129
Pallasite Meteorites
130
Sedimentary Rock
131
Faint Early Sun
132
Stromatolites
133
Great Oxygenation Event
134
Snowball Earths
135
Slushball Earth
136
Cambrian 'Explosion'
137
Sahelanthropus
138
Ardipithecus
139
Australopithecus afarensis ("Lucy")
140
Homo erectus (Narikotome Boy)
141
Homo sapiens
142
Oldowan Tools
143
Acheulean Tools
144
Coalescence Time
145
Hunter-gatherers
146
Childhood
147
Menopause
148
Group Selection
149
Non-infectious mismatch diseases
150
Adenine
151
4 Forces of changing population allele frequencies
1) Natural Selection
2) Genetic Drift
3) Immigration of individuals from elsewhere
4) New mutations
152
Human mutation rate
- Human mutation rate
- about 10^-8 per nucleotide site per generation (1 in a 100,000,000 base bairs)
- Human haploid genome contains 3 x 10^9 bases, thus we each have about 60 new mutations not present in our parents
153
Allele
154
Allele Frequencies
155
Chromosome
156
Cytosine
157
DNA
-Deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organism
-Each cell in an organism has the same DNA, which carries the genetic instructions necessary for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction. DNA consists of two strands that twist around each other to form a double helix, comprising four chemical bases (adenine [A], thymine [T], guanine [G], and cytosine [C]). The order of these bases determines the genetic information, much like letters in a sentence.
158
Diploid
(2n) 2 copies of each chromosome from each parent
159
Dominant
Allele that masks the recessive allele
160
Gene
-Segments of DNA located on structures called chromosomes (thread-like structures in the nucleus of every cell that carry genetic information), act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. Every gene tells the cell how to put together the building blocks of these proteins, which are essential for maintaining the cell's structure and function.
161
Genetic
study of how genes lead to various traits or characteristics in living organisms and how those characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next.
162
Genotype
Set of genes in an organism
163
Genome
164
Haploid
(1n) One copy of chromosome from each parent
165
Heterozygous
Different alleles (one dominant and one recessive allele)
166
Homozygous
Same alleles (two dominant or two recessive)
167
Locus
Gene location on a chromosome
168
Recessive
Masked by dominant when heterozygous
(lower case)
169
Phenotype
Observable characteristics of an organism, influenced by the environment and by genotype
170
Thymine
171
Evolution
biological process through which the characteristics of organisms change over successive generations, depending on the interaction of genetic traits with environmental forces.
172
Microevolution
involves changes at or below the level of species, typically observed as changes in allele frequencies within a population over time. These changes can be due to several factors, including mutation, genetic drift, natural selection, and gene flow
173
Macroevolution
significant evolutionary changes that can lead to the creation of new species, genera, or larger groups
174
Allele Frequencies
175
Population
group of interbreeding individuals of the same species that live in the same geographic area. Members of a population share a common gene pool, which includes all the genes and their different alleles present in the population. This shared genetic structure means that all individuals in a population are subject to similar environmental pressures, which can lead to noticeable changes in their genetic composition over time.
176
Genetic Drift
mechanism of evolution that involves random fluctuations in allele frequencies, which are particularly noticeable in small populations
177
Natural selection
operates on the phenotypic variations among individuals in a population. These variations must be heritable and must influence reproductive success. Traits that enhance survival and reproduction tend to become more common in the population over time, leading to adaptive changes.
178
Gene Flow
occurs when individuals or their gametes move from one population to another, mixing their genetic material with the new population. This process tends to reduce genetic differences between populations, increasing genetic diversity within populations but making separate populations more genetically similar
179
Mutation
Primary source of new genetic variation in any population. These changes in the DNA sequence can result from errors during DNA replication or from the effects of environmental mutagens such as radiation or chemicals.
180
Four Forces of (Micro)Evolution
1) Mutation
2) Genetic drift
3) Natural Selection
4) Gene flow
181
Three requirements for evolution by natural selection to act on a trait
1) Variation
2) Deferential reproductive success
3) Heritable
182
Genetic drift
- RANDOM fluctuations in allele frequencies
- more noticeable in small populations
Can lead to rapid shift in allele frequencies, independent of an advantage or disadvantages conferred by genetic drift
183
Assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1) No selection
2) No mutation
3) No migration
4) Large population
5) Random mating
184
Hardy-Weinberg Equations
P + q = 1
P= dominant allele frequency (G)
q= recessive allele frequency (g)
p^2 + 2PQ +q^2 = 1
P^2 = homozygous dominant (GG)
2pq = heterozygous (Gg)
q^2 = homozygous recessive (gg)
185
Example of HWE allele frequency
p (0.6) + q (0.4)=1
186
Example of HWE Genotype Frequency
p (0.6)^2 + 2P(0.6)q(0.4) +q(0.4)^2 = 1
0.36 + 0.48 + 0.16 =1
187
500-375 = 125
125/500= 0.25 = light green (gg) homo recessive
375/500 = 0.75 = dark green (Gg or GG) heterozygous of homo dominant
p +q = 1
Want q and can get from second HWE
p^2 + 2PQ +q^2 = 1
q^2 (homo recessive) = 0.25
Square root to get allele frequency = 0.5
p + 0.5 = 1
p = 0.5 (allele frequency of G)
0.5^2 + 2(0.5)(0.5)+0.5^2 = 1
0.25+0.5+0.25 = 1
Homozygous dominant =0.25
Heterozygous = 0.5
Homozygous recessive =0.25
