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BIO 130 > BIO 130 Test 2 > Flashcards

BIO 130 Test 2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the process where homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase 1 of meiosis

A

Synapsis

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2
Q

Genetic process that occurs during meiosis when homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material

A

Crossing Over

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3
Q

A process that restructures part of a genome by exchanging genetic material between DNA molecules

A

Recombination

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4
Q

A breeding experiment that involved reversing the sexes of parents in a cross to determine the role of parental sex in inheritance

A

Reciprocal cross

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5
Q

Parental Generation, 1st generation, 2nd generation

A

P, F1, F2

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6
Q

A genetic theory that explains how phenotypic traits are passed down through generations

A

Particulate Inheritance

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7
Q

Pairs of alleles, or genes are separated into reproductive cells during meiosis

A

Principle of segregation

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8
Q

trait or gene that is most influential

A

Dominant

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9
Q

Trait or gene that is less strong, only shows through if it is homozygous

A

Recessive

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10
Q

two or more traits are fully expressed and neither is dominant or recessive

A

Codominant

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11
Q

A genetic phenomenon where a heterozygote phenotype is more extreme than either of its parents phenotypes

A

Overdominant

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12
Q

Different genes and their corresponding trait are separated independently during the development of reproductive cells

A

Principles of Independent assortment

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13
Q

A characteristic that is determine by genes located on the sex chromosome

A

Sex-linked trait

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14
Q

A genetic phenomenon where a single DNA variant, or gene, affects multiple traits that may seem unrelated.

A

Pleiotropy

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15
Q

A genetic phenomenon where the expression of one gene is modified by the expression of one or more other genes.

A

Epistasis

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16
Q

What are the three purposes of mitosis we discussed in class?

A

Growth, repair, and asexual reproduction

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17
Q

Why is it important to have regulation checkpoints in the cell cycle?

A

They act at control mechanisms to make sure the cell is fully grown and ready to divide into two cells

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18
Q

What is the evolutionary explanation for sexual reproduction?

A

Provides genetic diversity within a population

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19
Q

In what two ways does meiosis increase genetic variation?

A

Crossing over and Independent Assortment

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20
Q

What are the characteristics of a good model organism for genetic studies?

A

-a large natural population with a wide range of genetic variations
-a short generation time allowing for rapid observations of new mutations
-easily identifiable phenotypic traits linked to genetic variations
-well established genetic tools for manipulating and analyzing the genome
-a species with a high level of genetic diversity that is also convenient to study in a laboratory setting

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21
Q

Explain Mendel’s model of particulate inheritance

A

Genetic traits are passed from parent to offspring as discrete units called “particles” meaning that traits are not blended together but inherited as distinct entities

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22
Q

Cell cycle and phases

A

A series of events that a cell goes through to divide into two new daughter cells
-G1
-S
-G2
-Interphase
-Prophase
-Metaphase
-Anaphase
-Telophase
-Cytokinesis

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23
Q

Mitosis

A

A process where a single cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells

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24
Q

Meiosis

A

A type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms to produce gametes, or sex cells like eggs and sperm

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25
Q

Chromsome

A

The “X” structure carrying DNA

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26
Q

Sister Chromatids

A

The chromatids that have paired together

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27
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

The “XX” structure where one comes from mom and one comes from dad

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28
Q

Ploidy

A

The number of copies of chromosomes found in each nucleus in a given organism

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29
Q

Autosome

A

Any chromosome that is a sex chromosome

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30
Q

Transformation

A

the process where a cell takes up and incorporates foreign genetic material from its surroundings

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31
Q

Semiconservative Replication

A

the process by which DNA is copied in cells to create two new double-stranded DNA molecules, each with one original strand and one new strand

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32
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

Replicates DNA

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33
Q

Leading Strand

A

The strand of nascent DNA which is synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork

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34
Q

Lagging Strand

A

One of two strands of DNA that are found at the replication fork, or junction, in the double helix

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35
Q

mRNA

A

Messenger RNA is a single stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of synthesizing a protein

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36
Q

5’ CAP

A

Protects the mRNA, helps export out of cell, and promotes translation

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37
Q

Poly-A-Tail

A

Makes the mRNA molecule more stable and prevents its degration

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38
Q

Introns

A

the segment of DNA that does not code for proteins, gets spliced out

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39
Q

Exons

A

the segment of DNA that codes for the protein, turns into the mature RNA strand

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40
Q

Splicesomes

A

large ribonucleoprotein complexes that remove introns from pre-mRNA to create a translatable molecule

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41
Q

RNA polymerase

A

An enzyme that functions by copying a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence

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42
Q

Template strand

A

the strand of DNA that serves as the pattern for building a complementary RNA molecule during the process of transcription

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43
Q

Promotor

A

A DNA sequence that marks the beginning of a gene’s transcription

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44
Q

Terminator

A

a sequence of nucleotides that marks the end of a gene or operon during transcription

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45
Q

Transcription Factors

A

A protein that binds to specific DNA sequences on a gene to regulate the rate at which that gene is transcribed into RNA

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46
Q

Ribosomes

A

a complex molecular machine found within cells, responsible for protein synthesis by translating the genetic code carried by messenger RNA into a chain of amino acids, which then fold to form proteins

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47
Q

Ribozyme

A

a ribonucleic acid molecule that can catalyze chemical reactions, similar to an enzyme

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48
Q

rRNA

A

a fundamental component of ribosomes, which are molecular machines that translate genetic information into proteins

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49
Q

Codon

A

a sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that correspond with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis

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50
Q

Anticodon

A

a sequence of three nucleotides in transfer RNA that matches a specific codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis

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51
Q

Reading Frame

A

the specific way a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA is divided into groups of three, called codons, which re then translated into amino acids during protein synthesis

52
Q

tRNA

A

transfer RNA is a small RNA molecule that helps translate messenger RNA into proteins

53
Q

aminoacyl-tRNA-synthase

A

an enzyme that attaches amino acids to transfer RNAs in order to create aminocylated tRNAs

54
Q

Wobble

A

a non standard base pairing in RNA molecules that occur frequently in tRNA’s

55
Q

Post-Translational Modification

A

a chemical change that occurs to a protein after it has been translated by a ribosome

56
Q

Mutation

A

a change in the DNA sequence of an organism

57
Q

Mutagen

A

a physical or chemical agent that can cause permanent changes in an organism’s genetic material(DNA), leading to an increased frequency of mutations above the natural background level

58
Q

Point Mutation

A

a genetic change where a single nucleotide base pair in a DNA sequence is altered, either by substitution, insertion, or deletion, resulting in a potential change to the protein produced by a gene

59
Q

Missense Mutation

A

A genetic change where a base pair substitution in DNA results in a different amino acid being coded for at a specific position in the resulting protein

60
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

A genetic mutation that causes a protein to be terminated early, resulting in a shorter or nonfunctional protein

61
Q

Insertion

A

the addition of one or more nucleotides into a segment of DNA

62
Q

Deletion

A

A type of genetic change that involves he absence of a segment of DNA

63
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

a genetic mutation where a deletion or insertion occurs, causing the reading frame to shift, resulting in a different amino acid sequence being produced from that point onwards

64
Q

Gene Duplication

A

A process where a section of DNA containing a gene is copied, resulting in the creation of an identical duplicate gene within an organism’s genome

65
Q

Inversion

A

a chromosomal rearangment where a segment of a chromosome breaks off and reattaches in the reverse direction

66
Q

Ribonucleases

A

enzymes that break down RNA into smaller components

67
Q

Gene Expression

A

the process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function

68
Q

Transcriptional Control

A

the process by which a cell regulates the conversion of DNA to RNA, which in turn controls gene activity

69
Q

Translational Control

A

Governs the efficiency of mRNA’s

70
Q

Post-Translational Control

A

the process of regulating proteins after they have been translated

71
Q

Molecular Chaperones

A

proteins that help other proteins fold properly, refold after denaturation, and travel to their proper location in the cell

72
Q

Chromatin

A

a complex structure made up of DNA tightly wound around protein complexes called histones

73
Q

Histones

A

A type of protein found in a chromosome

74
Q

Enhancer

A

cis-acting DNA sequences that can increase the transcription of genes

75
Q

Silencer

A

Regulatory DNA elements that reduce transcription from their target promoters

76
Q

Restriction Enzyme

A

a protein produced by bacteria hat specifically cuts DNA at particular sequences, known as restriction sites

77
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A

a laboratory technique that amplifies specific DNA or RNA sequence for analysis.
PCR is used to make many copies of a specific DNA segment from a small sample. This allows researchers to detect and analyze the DNA, which can help diagnose genetic conditions, diseases, and infections.

78
Q

DNA sequencing

A

the general laboratory technique for determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule.

79
Q

dideoxynucleotides

A

a modified nucleotide that prevents DNA chains from elongating further at a specific point

80
Q

Open reading frame

A

a segment of DNA that can be translated into a protein

81
Q

Central Dogma

A

a theory that describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein

82
Q

Sketch and explain the Hershey chase experiment

A

series of experiments conducted in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase that helped to confirm DNA as the genetic material

83
Q

Sketch a DNA replication fork and explain the direction of new strand synthesis on each strand

A

Draw it

84
Q

Explain semiconservative replication and how the Meselson-Stahl experiment supports it.

A

Semiconservative replication refers to the process where each new DNA molecule formed during replication contains one strand from the original parent DNA molecule and newly synthesized strand.
The Meselson-Stahl experiment proved that there is mix of olde DNA and new DNA in the double helix.

85
Q

Explain the Central Dogma using the recipe book analogy

A

DNA acts like a cookbook, storing all the genetic information needed to make proteins. If the book you photocopied was a cookbook, the protein might be the food you cooked from the recipe.

86
Q

How does the ribosomes catalyze protein synthesis?

A

translating the genetic code transcribed in mRNA into an amino acid sequence

87
Q

What evidence suggests that peptide bonds are catalyzed by a ribosome?

A

The active site for this reaction, known as the peptide transferase center, is entirely composed of ribosomal RNA within the large ribosomal subunit.

88
Q

What are the two important features of a tRNA molecule? How is it involved in transcription?

A

the anticodon loop, which contains a sequence of three nucleotides complementary to a specific mRNA codon, and the amino acid attachment site at the 3’ end, where the corresponding amino acid is attached

89
Q

What are the common types of post-translational modification?

A

Phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation

90
Q

Why are these enzymes in the cell that destroy mRNA?

A

ribonucleases are present in the cell to allow for controlled regulation of protein synthesis by ensuring that mRNA molecules don’t persist indefinitely

91
Q

Discuss the reasons that regulations of gene expression is important

A

it allows organisms to adapt to changing environments, control cell differentiation during development, conserve energy by only expressing necessary genes, and maintain proper cellular function by ensuring the right proteins are produced at the right time in the right amount

92
Q

Explain how PCR works

A

It rapidly ceases millions of copies of a specific DNA segment by repeatedly cycling through three steps: denaturation(separating DNA strands), annealing(primer binding), and extension(DNA synthesis), using a special enzyme called DNA polymerase to build new DNA strands based on a template strand, allowing for targeted amplification of a desired DNA region within a sample

93
Q

Explain how dideoxynucleotides can be used to determine DNA sequence

A

by acting as chain terminators during DNA replication

94
Q

Prophase

A

the first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappear. The first prophase of meiosis includes the reduction division.

95
Q

Metaphase

A

the second stage of cell division, during which the chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers

96
Q

Anaphase

A

the stage in which the chromosomes move away from one another to opposite poles of the spindle

97
Q

Telophase

A

the final phase of the cell division, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed

98
Q

Cytokinesis

A

the cytoplasmic cell division of the cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells

99
Q

Interphase

A

the stage in the cell cycle where a cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division(mitosis) by actively synthesizing proteins and other necessary molecules

100
Q

Nondisjunction

A

when chromosomes fail to separate during cell division, resulting in daughter cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes

101
Q

Genetic Inheritance

A

the process of passing genetic information, or genes, from parents to their offspring during reproduction

102
Q

Autosomal Dominant

A

a pattern of inheritance for genetic traits and disorders were a mutated gene from one parent is enough to cause the condition in a child

103
Q

Autosomal Recessive

A

a pattern of inheritance for some genetic disorders and traits

104
Q

What is an X-linked example and can you draw it?

A

red-green colorblindness, the disease linked to the X chromosome or the maternal side

105
Q

Heterozygous

A

having two different alleles of a particular gene or genes

106
Q

Homozygous

A

having two identical versions of a gene, one inherited form each other biological parent

107
Q

Draw a cross between a heterozygous(Xx) and homozygous(XX)

A

Draw

108
Q

Draw a dihybrid cross between XiXi and XIXi

A

Draw

109
Q

Epigenome

A

the collection of chemical compounds that modify DNA and proteins in a cell, which in turn alters gene expression

110
Q

Methylation

A

a chemical reaction that adds a methyl group to molecules in the body, such as DNA, proteins, and other molecules. This process can affect how these molecules function.

111
Q

Acetylation

A

a chemical reaction that adds an acetyl group to a molecule in place of a hydrogen atom

112
Q

What is genomic imprinting?

A

a process that regulates gene expression by silencing one copy of a gene in an individual, depending on whether it came from the mother or the father

113
Q

Chromatin remodeling

A

a process that changes the structure of chromatin to make DNA more accessible to transcription factors and the proteins that control gene expression

114
Q

Transcriptional Control

A

the process by which a cell regulates the conversion of DNA to RNA, which in turn controls gene activity

115
Q

Draw DNA replication

A

Draw

116
Q

Helicase

A

an enzyme that separates double-stranded DNA or RNA into single strands

117
Q

Primers

A

a short-single stranded DNA sequence that acts as a starting point for DNA synthesis

118
Q

Ligase

A

an enzyme that joins two molecules together by forming a new chemical bond

119
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

a short piece of DNA synthesized discontinuously on the lagging strand during DNA replication

120
Q

DNA Polymerase lll

A

the primary enzyme responsible for replicating DNA in prokaryotic cells, particularly in bacteria like E. coli

121
Q

DNA Polymerase l

A

an enzyme that plays a crucial role in DNA replication, primarily responsible for removing RNA primers from the newly synthesized DNA strand during lagging strand synthesis and filling in the gaps left behind

122
Q

Topoisomerase

A

an enzyme which alters the supercoiled form of a DNA molecule

123
Q

Positive Control

A

a sample or group that is treated with a known stimulus that should produce a predictable positive result

124
Q

Negative Control

A

a group or sample hat does not receive the experimental treatment and is expected to show no change.

125
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error

126
Q

Antibiodies

A

a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood

127
Q

Chromatid

A

one of the two identical halves of a replicated chromosome

BIO 130 (2 decks)

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