Bio Flashcards
What is a transformation?
Cellular uptake of foreign DNA directly into the enviornment
What is transduction?
Transfer of DNA from one bacterial cell to another through a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria)
What is conjugation?
the transfer of genetic information from one bacterial cell to another a direct contact
What are rod shaped bacteria called?
Baccili
What are spherical shaped viruses called?
Cocci
What are spiral bacteria called?
Spirrili
What are T tubules?
Transverse tubules are channels that bring depolarizing current close to the SR. The SR is smooth ER and is responsible for regulating Ca 2+
What is genetic leakage?
hybrid individuals can create some viable offspring when mated with their parental species.
What is the resting stage of the cell cycle?
G0
What is the pre-synthetic growth phase?
G1/S
What is the DNA replication phase of the cell cycle?
S phase
What is the DNA repair phase of the cell cycle?
G2 phase
What does DNA methylation do?
DNA methylation suppresses transcription factors
What is Northern blotting?
To detect a particular sequence of RNA
What is Southern blotting?
To detect a particular sequence of DNA
What are Kinesin motors?
Moves cargo along microtubules in anterograde transport (away from the body)
What are Dynein motors?
move cargo in a retrograde fashion on microtubules (toward cell bodies)
What is the function of the spleen?
To filter aged and damaged RBCs, store blood, help with immune responses
What do gap junctions do?
mediate communication between cells
What do tight junctions do?
prevent water and solutes from diffusing between cells
What are desmosomes?
provide tensile strength between cells by anchoring cytoskeleton
How do bacteria and archaea differ?
Bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall
What are the stages of the cell cycle?
What is monocistronic?
the capacity of eukaryotes to code one gene per one mRNA, as opposed to prokaryotes which can code many genes on one mRNA
What is hybridization of RNA?
The process of binding with complementary nucleotides
What is a sympathetic motor neuron?
triggers a fight or flight response (pupil dilation)
What are parasympathetic motor neurons?
cause pupils to contract
What are sympathetic sensory neurons?
They carry electric current related to sensory info to the CNS
What enzymes (in order) are used to repair DNA?
endonuclease, polymerase, ligase
What is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system?
SNS controls “fight or flight” responses and PSNS controls “rest and digest”
What does acetylcholine control (ACh)?
Helps with muscle contraction
What does acetylation of lysine in histones do to gene expression?
Increases gene expression because salt bridges and phosphate groups are disrupted.
What is histone acetylation and what does it do?
Histone acetylation generally increases gene expression.
What does DNA methylation do?
represses gene expression
Where do post-transcriptional modifications occur?
the nucleus
What is a nociceptor?
noxious stimuli mediates the perception of pain.
What is a chemoreceptor?
Involved with neurons that sense gases and liquids
What is a baroreceptor?
Responds to changes in presssure
Do bacteria have introns?
No
What does mitosis do?
Separates sister chromatids to create 2 diploid daughter cells
What does Meiosis I do?
Separates homologous pairs of chromosomes into 2 haploid daughter cells
What does Meiosis II do?
sister chromatids separate (just like mitosis) in each of the 2 daughter cells, creating 4 haploid cells
If K>1 in then dG will be?
negative. dG = -RTln(K)
If K<1 the dG will be?
positive. dG = -RTln(K)
What is Western blotting?
gives us information about the amount of protein expressed in a cell
What is RT-PCR?
gives us information about the amount of RNA expressed
Does interaction and cooperative behavior increase or decrease as children get closer to the age of 8?
increase
What is assimilation?
The process of adopting a new culture once already socialized
What is socialization?
the initial process of learning about life. internalizing the social norms and values
What is a zymogen?
an enzyme that needs activated by another enzyme in order for it to act like one itself
What is a native gel?
It is a gel that preserves protein structures unlike SDS-PAGE
How does depolarization occur?
The gated sodium ion channels on the neuron’s membrane suddenly open and allow sodium ions (Na+) present outside the membrane to rush into the cell.
How does repolarization work?
It is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the opening of potassium ion channels.
What is the probability of nondisjunction?
0.08% (1/130)
Are all electron carriers hydrophobic in the ETC?
No, cytochrome c is water soluble
What happens during hyperventilation?
There is a loss of CO2 (increase in pH) and an increase of O2 in the blood
What is hypoxia?
A loss of O2 in the blood
Where are 70s ribosome found and what do they do?
In prokaryotes and they produce proteins
Where are 80s ribosomes found and what do they do?
In eukaryotes and they make proteins
How are alveoli kept inflated during exhalation?
Superfactant decreases surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse
What does Ligase do during S-phase?
binds the lagging strand
What does DNA polymerase do?
repairs pieces of mis-regulated DNA
What does helicase do?
It unwinds the double helical strand of DNA to START REPLICAITON
What does primase do?
begins the synthesis of a new copied strand of DNA
What is passive immunity?
the transfer of active humoral immunity in the form of ready-made antibodies, from one individual to another.
What is non-specific immunity?
includes anatomical barriers, secretory molecules, and cellular components.
What is natural immunity?
present in the individual at birth, prior to exposure to a pathogen or antigen, and that includes intact skin, salivary enzymes, neutrophils, natural killer cells, and complement.
What is cell-mediated immunity?
does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen.
What do epithelial cells line?
gastrointestinal, glands, outer layers of the skin
What do endothelial cells line?
line the interior of the cardiovascular system
Where do hormones secreted by the pituitary gland come from?
the hypothalamus
What is the anterior pituitary?
Made up of glandular tissue. FLAT PEG. foccile, leucine, adrenocorticotropic, thyroid, prolactin, endorphins, growth hormone
What is the posterior pituitary?
Made up of axonal projections
Secretes oxytocin and vasopressin
What are the different muscle types and the main differences between them?
What is cDNA and how is it synthesized?
It is DNA with no introns.
it is made from mRNA
What does calcitonin do?
Decreases blood Ca2+ levels
What is an endosymbiotic bacteria?
It lives inside the nematodes: as a result, it can evade detection by the immune system
What is gram negative bacteria?
resistant to multiple drugs and are increasingly resistant to most available antibiotics.
What is gram positive bacteria?
Bacteria with thick cell walls. Lack an outer membrane
What is the function of intermediate filaments?
Intermediate filaments such as keratin are directly responsible for structural integrity in skin.
What does norepinephrine do?
It causes an increase in heart rate and blood pumping from the heart
What does the right ventricle do?
Receives blood from the right atrium. Has thinner walls than the left ventricle to pump blood at a lower pressure to lungs
What is the left ventricle?
Receives blood from the left atrium.
Has thicker walls to pump blood at a higher pressure to all body tissues except the lungs
What is decreased pulmonary gas exchange vs normal?
When do interstitial fluids build up?
When the blood (pulmonary) hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure
How does blood flow through the heart?
What do transcription factors do?
DNA binding proteins involved in the process of converting, or transcribing, DNA into RNA
How is filtration regulated in the glomerulus?
The glomerular capillary pressure will force filtrate from a capillary into Bowman’s capsule; the other two forces promote movement of the filtrate in the opposite direction.
Prokaryote vs Eukaryote replication
prokaryotes do not undergo mitosis (two diploid daughter cells) or meiosis (four haploid daughter cells), rather they undergo binary fission
Which of the four types of tissue is not considered connective?
Muscle (blood, bone, and adipose are connective)
How is apoptosis induced?
ROS cause Cytochrome C to leave the mitochondria and go to the cytosol. CYTOCHROME C activates CAPASE which activates PROTEOLYSIS (which degrades the cell)
What is glycogenolysis?
Glycogen breaks down into glucose-1-phosphate and glucose. The reaction takes place in the hepatocytes and the myocytes.
Regulated by phosphorylase kinase and glycogen phosphorylase
What cellular pathways occur in the cytosol?
glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and gluconeogenesis (PC and PEPCK in both the cytosol and mitochondria)
What cellular pathways occur in mitochondria?
Citric Acid Cycle, Fatty acid oxidation
What is the cori cycle?
Lactate, produced by anaerobic glycolysis in muscles, is transported to the liver and converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is cyclically metabolized back to lactate.
What are the different types of evolution?
Parallel: occurs when independent species acquire similar characteristics while evolving together at the same time in the same ecospace (DO NOT have the a RECENT common ancestor)
Divergent: species SHARING a common ancestry become more distinct due to differential selection pressure which gradually leads to speciation over an evolutionary time period
Convergent: the evolution in different lineages of structures that are similar or ‘analogous’, but that CANNOT be attributed to the existence of a common ancestor;
What is the adrenal medulla and what does it do?
controls flight or fight hormones (norepinephrine and epinephrine) a part of the sympathetic nervous system
How is cortisol generated?
Lytic vs Lysogenic cycle
The lytic cycle relies on the host (will eventually burst) to replicate and release viral progeny
The lysogenic cycle also uses the host but bacteriophages will inject their DNA into the genome of the bacteria and become dormant, allowing the host to replicate for the virus.
What kinds of nucleic acids can form the genome of a virus?
Single stranded RNA, single stranded DNA, double stranded DNA
What kind of DNA does mitochondria have?
circular chromosome of double stranded, self replicating DNA
What are microtubules composed of and what can they do?
Tubulin, cilia + flagella
What is the difference between conjugation, transformation, and transduction?
Conjugation: transfer of genetic material through direct contact (sexual mating btwn bacteria)
Transformation: horizontal gene transfer by which bacteria take up foreign genetic material from the environment
Transduction: transfer of genetic material through a vector (bacteriophage)
What is the difference between single stranded positive and negative sense RNA?
Positive: Can be translated directly into protein by the host cell
Negative: Needs a complementary strand to be synthesized by RNA helicase
