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Biology 111 > Bio 111 Exam 1 > Flashcards

Bio 111 Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Evolution

A

The process of change that has transformed life on Earth from today. An organism’s adaptations to its environment are a result of this

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2
Q

Biology

A

The scientific study of life

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3
Q

What are the central activities of Biology?

A

Posing questions about the living world and seeking science-based answers- scientific inquiry

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4
Q

What are 7 properties of life?

A

Order, response to environment, evolutionary adaptation, reproduction, regulation, energy processing, growth and development

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5
Q

8 Unifying themes of biology

A

New properties emerge at each level in the biological hierarchy, organisms interact with other organisms and the physical environment, life requires energy transfer and transformation, structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization, the cell is an organism’s basic unit of structure and function, the continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA, feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems, evolution

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6
Q

Emergent properties

A

Properties that emerge at each step, properties that are not present at the preceding level. Due to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases. Our thoughts and memories are emergent properties of a complex network of nerve cells

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7
Q

Reductionism

A

the approach of reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

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8
Q

System

A

a combination of components that function together

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9
Q

Systems biology

A

An approach that attempts to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system’s parts

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10
Q

Levels of biological organization

A

biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs and organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules

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11
Q

Interactions between organisms ultimately result in…

A

the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems

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12
Q

Organisms often transform one form of energy to another

A

.

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13
Q

Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as ____ and exiting as ____

A

energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as light and exiting as heat

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14
Q

Why is it important that a leaf is thin and flat?

A

Its thin, flat shape maximizes the amount of sunlight that can be captured

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14
Q

What is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life?

A

The cell

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15
Q

What are the two main forms of cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

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16
Q

What two groups of microorganisms are prokaryotic?

A

Bacteria (bacterium) and archaea (archaean)

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17
Q

Eukaryotic cell

A

Subdivided by internal membranes into various membrane-enclosed organelles. In most eukaryotic cells, the largest organelle is the nucleus, which contains the cell’s DNA. Other organelles are located in the cytoplasm (the entire region between the nucleus and outer membrane of the cell.

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18
Q

What is the largest organelle in most eukaryotic cells?

A

The nucleus, which contains the cell’s DNA

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19
Q

Cytoplasm

A

The entire region between the nucleus and outer membrane of the cell in eukaryotic cells

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20
Q

Chloroplast

A

An organelle found in eukaryotic cells that carry out photosynthesis

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21
Q

Prokaryotic cell

A

The DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell by enclosure in a membrane-bounded nucleus

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22
Q

DNA

A

The cells genetic material contained in the chromosomes. Short for deoxyribonucleic acid. Made up of two long chains, called strands, arranged in a double helix. Each chain is made up of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides (A, T, C, G). Provides the blueprints for making proteins, and proteins are the main players in building and maintaining the cell and carrying out its activities.

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23
Q

Genes

A

The units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring. DNA is the substance of genes

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24
Q

Enzymes

A

Catalyze (speed up) specific chemical reactions

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25
Q

RNA

A

Used by DNA as an intermediary to control protein production. The sequence of nucleotides along a gene is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into specific protein with a unique shape and function. Not all RNA molecules in the cell are translated into protein

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26
Q

Gene expression

A

Information in a gene directs the production of a cellular product. Nucleotides transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into a specific protein with a unique shape and function. Differences between organisms reflect differences between their nucleotide sequences rather than between their genetic codes

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27
Q

Differences between organisms reflect differences between their _____ rather than between their _________

A

Differences between organisms reflect differences between their nucleotide sequences rather than between their genetic codes

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28
Q

Genome

A

“Library” of genetic instructions that an organism inherits

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29
Q

Genomics and examples that make this possible

A

Studying whole sets of genes of a species as well as comparing genomes between species. Important research developments have made this possible.

1) “High-throughput” technology, tools that can analyze biological materials very rapidly and produce enormous amounts of data. Automatic DNA-squencing machines
2) Bioinformatics
3) Formation of interdisciplinary research teams

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30
Q

Bioinformatics

A

Use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data that result from high-throughput methods.

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31
Q

Negative feedback

A

Most common form of regulation in living systems. Accumulation of an end product of a process slows that process. Example: cell’s breakdown of sugar generates ATP

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32
Q

Feedback regulation

A

The output, or product, of a process regulates that very process

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33
Q

Positive feedback

A

An end product speeds up its own product. Example: clotting of your blood- chemicals released by platelets attract more platelets

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34
Q

Evolution

A

The idea that the organisms living on Earth today are the modified descendants of common ancestors

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35
Q

Core theme of biology

A

Evolution

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36
Q

Taxonomy

A

The branch of biology that names and classifies species

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37
Q

Three domains of life

A

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

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38
Q

Bacteria

A

prokaryotic

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39
Q

Archaea

A

prokaryotic. At least as closely related to eukaryotic organisms as they are to bacteria.

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40
Q

Eukarya

A

All the eukaryotes (organisms with eukaryotic cells). Includes three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes: Plantae, Fungi, Animalia.

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41
Q

Three kingdoms of Eukarya and facts about each

A

Plantae- produce their own sugars and other food molecules by photosynthesis
Fungi- absorb dissolved nutirents from their surroundings; decompose dead organisms and organic wastes
Animalia- obtain food by ingestion

Neither animals, plants, nor fungi are as numerous or diverse as the single-celled eukaryotes we call protists

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42
Q

Protists

A

Single-celled eukaryotes. Plants, animals, or fungi are not as numerous or diverse. Was in their own kingdom, but not anymore because do nor form a single natural group of species

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43
Q

On the Origin of Species

A

One of mos important and influential books ever written. Published by Darwin.

1) Contemporary species areos from a succession of ancestors
2) “Natural selection” - descent with modification, individuals in a population vary in their traits, a population can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce offspring of their own, species generally suit their environments (aka they are adapted)

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44
Q

Natural Selection

A

Darwin. Mechanism of evolutionary adaptation. Called this because the natural environment “selects” for the propagation of certain traits.
Three observations:
1) Individuals in a population vary in their traits
2) Population can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce offspring of their own
3) Species generally suit their environment (are adapted)

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45
Q

Science

A

a way of knowing- an approach to understanding the natural world

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46
Q

Inquiry

A

The heart of science, a search for information and explanation. Scientists attempt to understand how natural phenomena work using a process of inquire that includes making observations, forming logical hypotheses, and testing them. Process is necessarily repetitive

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47
Q

Observation

A

Use of the senses to gather information. Recorded observations are called data

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48
Q

Data

A

Recorded observations.
Qualitative- recorded descriptions
Quantitative- measurements

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49
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Reasoning from a set of specific observations to reach a general conclusion. A type of logic involving collecting and analyzing observations that can lead to important conclusions. We derive generalizations from a large number of specific observations

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50
Q

Hypothesis

A

A tentative answer to a well-framed question. Leads to predictions that can be tested. No amount of experimental testing can prove a hypothesis beyond a shadow of a doubt. Must be testable and falsifiable**

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51
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Generally used after the hypothesis has been developed and involves logic that flows in the opposite direction, from the general to the specific. Takes the form of “If… then” logic

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52
Q

Scientific method

A

Observation > question > hypothesis > prediction > test > confirm or reject hypothesis. Must be repeatable

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53
Q

Warning coloration

A

Signals “dangerous species” to potential predators. Snake experiment

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54
Q

Controlled experiment

A

One designed to compare an experimental group with a control group. Researchers usually “control” unwanted variables not by eliminating them through environmental regulation, but by canceling out their effects by using control groups.

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55
Q

Theory

A

Much broader in scope than a hypothesis. General enough to spin off many new, specific hypotheses that can be tested. Compared to any one hypothesis, a theory is generally supported by a much greater body of evidence. Must sometimes modify or even reject theories

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56
Q

Model organism

A

A species that is easy to grow in the lab and lends itself particularly well to the questions being investigated. Fruit fly (drosophilia melanogaster), mustard plant (arabidopsis thaliana), soil worm (caenorhabditis elegans), zebrafish ( dania rerio), mouse (mus musculus), bacterium (escherichia coli)

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57
Q

Technology

A

Generally applies scientific knowledge for some specific purpose. Science and technology are interdependent

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58
Q

Goal of science?

A

To understand natural phenomena.

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59
Q

Matter

A

Organisms are composed of this. Anything that takes up space and has mass

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60
Q

Element

A

Makes up matter. Is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions

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61
Q

Compound

A

Substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio

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62
Q

Essential elements

A

About 20-25% of natural elements. Organism needs these to live a healthy life and reproduce

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63
Q

What four elements make up 96% of living matter?

A

Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

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64
Q

Trace elements

A

required by an organism in only minute quantities. Iodine is essential in vertebrates

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65
Q

Atom

A

smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element. Mostly empty space

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66
Q

Atomic nucleus

A

the center of an atom; protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral)

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67
Q

Atomic number

A

Number of protons. Written as subscript

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68
Q

Dalton

A

same as the atomic mass unit (amu). Neutrons and protons have masses close to 1 dalton. Electrons are ignored when computing the total mass. There are 6.02 x 10^23 daltons in 1 g (because of Avogadro’s number)

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69
Q

Mass number

A

Sum of protons and neutrons. Written as superscript. Neutrons = mass number(top) - atomic number(bottom)

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70
Q

Atomic mass

A

The total mass of an atom (the mass number is an approximation of this)

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71
Q

Isotopes

A

Different atomic forms of the same element. Slightly different masses. Behave identically in chemical reactions. An average of the atomic masses of all the element’s naturally occurring isotopes is the atomic mass

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72
Q

Radioactive isotope

A

Isotope which the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy. Useful as tracers to follow atoms through metabolism

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73
Q

Energy

A

Capacity to cause change- for instance, by doing work

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74
Q

Potential energy

A

Energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure. Matter has a natural tendency to move to the lowest possible state of potential energy

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75
Q

Electron shells

A

Where electrons are found. Represented as circles. When an electron absorbs energy, it moves to a shell farther out from the nucleus

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76
Q

Periods

A

Rows of the periodic table

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77
Q

Valence electrons/ valence shell

A

Outermost shell. Chemical behavior depends mostly on the number of electrons here.

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78
Q

Inert

A

Chemically unreactive

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79
Q

Orbital

A

Space in which electron spends most of its time (since we can never know the exact location of an electron

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80
Q

Chemical bonds

A

Attractions that hold atoms together. Strongest are covalent and ionic

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81
Q

Covalent bond

A

Sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms

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82
Q

Molecular Formula
Lewis dot structure
Structural formula

A

H2
H:H
H-H

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83
Q

Single bond

Double bond

A

A pair of shared electrons

Sharing two pairs of electrons

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84
Q

Atom’s valence

A

The bonding capacity, usually equals the number of unpaired electrons required to complete the atom’s outermost (valence) shell

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85
Q

Pure elements vs. Compound

A

H2 and O2 are pure elements. Compound is a combination of two or more different elements

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86
Q

Electronegativity

A

Attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. More electronegative, more strongly it pulls

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87
Q

Nonpolar covalent

A

Two atoms have same electronegativity

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88
Q

Ion (cation and anion)

A

Ion is a charged atom (or molecule)
Cation- positive charge
Anion- negative charge

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89
Q

Polar covalent

A

One atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom. Unequal sharing of electrons

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90
Q

Ionic bond

A

Transfer of electron is not the formation of a bond; rather, it allows a bond to form because it results in two ions of opposite charge

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91
Q

Ionic compounds

A

Salts. Compounds formed by ionic bonds. Does not consist of molecules. Formula only indicates the ratio

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92
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

Noncovalent attraction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom

93
Q

Van der Waals interactions

A

Individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. Ever-changing regions of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another

94
Q

Tetrahedron

A

A pyramid with a triangular base

95
Q

Opiates have a shape similar to endorphins and mimic them by binding to endorphin receptors in the brain

A

.

96
Q

Chemical reactions

A

Making and breakin of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter

97
Q

Reactants and products

A

Starting material- reactants, what is produced- products

98
Q

Raw materials of photosynthesis? What powers the conversion? What it produces?

A

Raw materials- CO2 and H20
Sunlight powers the conversion
Converted into glucose and oxygen

6 CO2 + 6 H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

99
Q

The greater the concentration of reactant molecules, the (more/less) frequently they collide with one another and have an opportunity to react and form products

A

more

100
Q

Chemical equilibrium

A

Point at which the reactions offset one another exactly. Reactions are still going on, but with no net effect on the concentrations of reactants and products

101
Q

Water

A

The biological medium here on Earth. Only common substance to exist in the natural environment in all three physical states of matter. All living organisms require this more than any other substance. Solid less dense than liquid. Water reaches its greatest density at 4C. Floating ice insulates the liquid water below, preventing it from freezing and allowing life to exist under the frozen surface. Most of the chemical reactions in organisms involve solutes dissolved in water.

102
Q

Polar molecule

A

Overall charge is unevenly distributed

103
Q

In water, which atom has the negative charge? The positive charge?

A

Oxygen is negative, hydrogen is positive

104
Q

What holds water molecules together?

A

Hydrogen bonds. These linkages also make water more structured than most other liquids

105
Q

Cohesion

A

Collection of hydrogen bonds that hold the substance (water) together. Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients agains gravity in plants

106
Q

Adhesion

A

The clinging of one substance to another. Adhesion of water to cell walls

107
Q

Surface tension

A

A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids

108
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy of motion

109
Q

Heat

A

A form of energy. The amount of heat is a measure of the matter’s total kinetic energy due to motion of its molecules. Depends in part on the matter’s volume

110
Q

Temperature

A

A measure of heat intensity that represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules

111
Q

How does an ice cube cool a drink?

A

Not by adding coldness to the liquid, but by absorbing heat from the liquid as the ice itself melts

112
Q

Average human body temperature?

A

37 degrees C

113
Q

Calorie

A

Amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree C

114
Q

Kilocalotie

A

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree C

115
Q

Joule (J)

A

equal to 0.239 cal. 1 cal = 4.184 J

116
Q

Specific heat

A

Amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature by 1 degree C. Water usually has a high specific heat.

117
Q

Does water have a high or low specific heat? How does this help Earth?

A

Water has a high specific heat. The water that covers most of Earth keeps temperature fluctuations on land and in water within limits that permit life

118
Q

Evaporation

A

Vaporization. Liquid to gas

119
Q

Heat of vaporization

A

Quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

120
Q

Evaporative cooling

A

As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down. Occurs because the “hottest” molecules are the most likely to leave as a gas.

121
Q

Solution

A

A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

122
Q

Solvent

A

The dissolving agent of a solution (typically water)

123
Q

Solute

A

Substance that is dissolved

124
Q

Aqueous solution

A

Solution where water is the solvent

125
Q

Hydration shell

A

The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion

126
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Affinity for water

127
Q

Colloid

A

A stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid. Molecules that are so large they do not dissolve and instead remain suspended in the aqueous liquid of the cell.

128
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Water fearing, seems to repel water

129
Q

Molecular mass

A

The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule

130
Q

Mole (mol)

A

Represents an exact number of objects (6.02 x 10^23)

131
Q

Avogadro’s number

A

6.02 x 10^23

132
Q

Molar mass

A

weight that is one mole of molecules

133
Q

Molarity

A

M/L

Number of moles of solute per liter of solution

134
Q

Hydrogen ion

A

H+

Does not exist on its own in an aqueous solution

135
Q

Hydroxide ion

A

OH-

136
Q

Hydronium ion

A

H3O+

137
Q

Acid

A

Substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Also removes hydroxide ions. HCl is a strong acid

138
Q

Base

A

Substance that reduces they hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. NaCl is a strong base. Ammonia is a weak base

139
Q

pH

A

= -log[H+]
Declines as H+ increases. The lower the number, the more acidic the solution. Most biological fluids are within the range pH 6-8

140
Q

Buffer

A

Allows biological fluids to maintain a relatively constant pH despite the addition of acids or bases. A substance that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution. Does so by accepting hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess and donating hydrogen ions to the solution when they have been depleted. Most buffer solutions contain a weak acid and its corresponding base

141
Q

Ocean acidification

A

When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers ocean pH

142
Q

Acid precipitation

A

Refers to rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than 5.2

143
Q

Organic chemistry

A

Branch of chemistry that specializes in the study of carbon compounds

144
Q

Organic compounds/ inorganic compounds (Berzelius)

A

Those thought to arise only in living organisms. Those found only in the nonliving world

145
Q

Vitalism

A

The belief in a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws

146
Q

Mechanism

A

The view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena

147
Q

Is CO2 normally considered organic or inorganic?

A

Inorganic even though it contains carbon, because it lacks hydrogen

148
Q

What form the skeletons of most organic molecules?

A

Carbon chains. Hydrophobic. Can undergo reactions that release a relatively large amount of energy. Fats have long hydrocarbon tails attached to nonhydrocarbon component

149
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.

150
Q

Isomers

A

Compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties. Number of possible isomers increases tremendously as carbon skeletons increase in size

151
Q

Structural isomers

A

Differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.

152
Q

Cis-trans isomers

A

Formerly called geometric isomers. Carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds. Cis- arrangement with Xs on same side. Trans- arrangement with Xs on opposite sides

153
Q

Enantiomers

A

Isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon. In a way, they are left-handed and right-handed versions of the molecule

154
Q

Functional groups

A

Chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions

155
Q

Adenosine triphosphate

A

ATP. Consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups.

156
Q

Adenosine diphosphate

A

ADP. After ATP loses a phosphate

157
Q

4 main classes of important large molecules

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

158
Q

Macromolecules

A

huge molecules. carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids

159
Q

polymers

A

chain-like molecules. Long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds

160
Q

Monomers

A

repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer

161
Q

Enzymes

A

specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions

162
Q

dehydration reaction

A

two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a water molecule

163
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Reverse of dehydration. Break using water

164
Q

How many amino acids build proteins

A

20

165
Q

Carbohydrates

A

sugars and polymers of sugars. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

166
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Simple sugars. Monomers from which more complex carbohydrates are constructed. CH2O. Glucose is the most common

167
Q

Disaccharides

A

Double sugars. Two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond (glycosidic linkage). Sucrose most prevalent (glucose + fructose)

168
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Macromolecules. Polymers composed of many sugar building blocks (a few hundred or thousand joined by glycosidic linkages)

169
Q

A sugar is either an ____ or a ____

A

aldose (aldehyde sugar) or a ketose (ketone sugar)

170
Q

Glycosidic linkage

A

Covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

171
Q

Starch

A

A polymer of glucose monomers. Plants store as granules within cellular structures known as plastides, which include chloroplasts

172
Q

Amylose

A

Simplest form of starch. Unbranched

173
Q

Amylopectin

A

More complex starch. Branched polymer with 1-6 linkages at the branch

174
Q

Glycogen

A

Polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched. Animals store. Mainly in liver and muscle cells

175
Q

Cellulose

A

Polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells. Plants produce almost 100 billion tons per year. Most abundant organic compound on earth. Polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages in these two polymers differ (two slightly different ring structures for glucose). Cellulose molecule is straight and never branched. Major constituent of paper and only component of cotton. Few organisms posses enzymes that can digest this.

176
Q

Chitin

A

Carbohydrate used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons. Leathery and flexible when pure, becomes hardened when encrusted with calcium carbonate (a salt)

177
Q

Lipids

A

Does not include true polymers, generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules. Mix poorly, if at all, with water. Consist mostly of hydrocarbon regions. Fats, phospholipids, steroids

178
Q

Fat

A

Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an alcohol. A gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide such as starch.

179
Q

Fatty acid

A

Long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. One end is part of a carboxyl group

180
Q

Triacylglycerol

A

Triglyceride. Three fatty acid molecules each joind to glycerol by an ester linkage

181
Q

Ester linkage

A

Bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group

182
Q

Saturated

A

No double bonds between carbon atoms. Saturated with hydrogen. Saturated animal fats solid at room temp. Diet rich in saturated fat one of several factors that may contribute to the cardiovascular disease known as atherosclerosis (plaques develop, inward bulges impede blood flow and reduse resilience of the vessels

183
Q

Unsaturated

A

One or more double bonds. Nearly all double bonds in naturally occurring fatty acids are cis double bonds which cause a kink. Fats of plants and fish generally unsaturated and usually liquid at room temp. Cis bonds prevent molecules from packing together closely enough to solidify

184
Q

Trans fats

A

May contribute more than saturated fats to atherosclerosis. USDA requires nutritional labels to include information on trans fat content

185
Q

Adipose cells

A

Where humans and other mammals stock their long-term food reserves. Swell and shrink as fat is deposited and withdrawn from storage. Cushions vial organs and insulates body

186
Q

Phospholipids

A

Make up cell membranes. Similar to a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than three. Joined to a phosphate group which has a negative electrical charge in the cell, hydrophilic. Hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic.

187
Q

Bilayers

A

When phospholipids self assemble into double-layered structures shielding their hydrophobic portions from water

188
Q

Steroids

A

Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

189
Q

Cholesterol

A

Crucial molecule in animals. Precursor from which other steroids are synthesized. In vertebrates, synthesized in liver and obtained from diet. May contribute to atherosclerosis

190
Q

Proteins

A

Biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific 3-D structure. Account for more than 50% of they dry mass of most cells. Speed up chemical reactions, play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, or structural support. Most structurally sophisticated molecules known. Not JUST a polypeptide chain, but one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a molecule of unique shape

191
Q

Catalyst

A

Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction. How enzymatic proteins regulate metabolism

192
Q

Polypeptides

A

Polymers of amino acids

193
Q

Amino acid

A

Organic molecule possessing both amino group and a carboxyl group. All share a common structure. At center- asymmetric carbon atom (called alpha carbon)

194
Q

Acidic vs. Basic amino acids

A

Acidic- side chains generally negative owing to the presence of a carboxyl group
Basic- have amino groups in their side chains that are generally positive in charge
Acidic and Basic refer only to groups on the side chains

195
Q

Peptide bond

A

Carboxyl group joins by dehydration reaction to the amino group of the other

196
Q

Polypeptide

A

Polymer of many amino acids linked by peptide bonds. One end has a free amino group while the other has a free carboxyl group. Not synonymous with protein.

197
Q

N-terminus and C-terminus

A

N- single amino end of a polypeptide

C- single carboxyl end of a polypeptide

198
Q

Globular proteins

A

Roughly spherical

199
Q

Fibrous proteins

A

shaped like long fibers

200
Q

Antibody

A

A protein in the body

201
Q

Primary structure

A

A linked series of amino acids with a unique sequence

202
Q

Secondary structure

A

Coils and folds. Result of hydrogen bonds between the repeating constituents of the polypeptide bonds. Alpha helix and Beta pleated sheet

203
Q

Alpha helix

Beta pleated sheet

A

Delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid

Two or more strands of the polypeptide chain lying side by side. Silk protein of a spider’s web

204
Q

Tertiary structure

A

Overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the various amino acids. One type of interaction is a hydrophobic interaction. Disulfide bridges may further reinforce the shape of a protein

205
Q

Hydrophobic interaction

A

Amino acids with hydrophobic side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein, out of contact with water. Actually caused by the exclusion of nonpolar substances by water molecules

206
Q

Disulfide bridge

A

Form where two cysteine monomers, which have sulfhydryl groups (-SH) on side chains are brought close together by the folding of protein. Further reinforce the shape of a protein

207
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits. Multiple polypeptides forming a functional protein

208
Q

Sickle-ell disease

A

An inherited blood disorder. Caused by substitution of one amino acid (valine) for the normal one (glutamic acid) at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin. Abnormal hemoglobin molecules tend to crystalilize, deforming some of the cells into a sickle shape

209
Q

Denaturation

A

Destruction of protein by unraveling and losing its native shape. Caused by extreme salt concentration, pH, temperature change. Most proteins become denatured if they are transferred from an aqueous environment to a nonpolar solvent. White of egg becomes opaque because the denatured proteins are insoluble and solidify

210
Q

Chaperonins

A

Chaperone proteins. Protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins

211
Q

Diseases associated with accumulation of misfolded proteins

A

Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, mad cow

212
Q

X-ray crystallography

A

Used to determine the 3-D structure of many other proteins.

213
Q

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy

A

Method used for analyzing protein structure. Does not require protein crystallization

214
Q

Gene

A

Discrete unit of inheritance. Consist of DNA

215
Q

Nucleic acids

A

Polymers made of monomers called nucleotides. DNA belongs to this class of compounds

216
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

Enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next. Provides directions for its own replication. Directs RNA synthesis. Not directly involved in running the operations of the cell (like computer software). Almost always exists as a double helix

217
Q

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

Enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one generation to the next. More variable in shape (unlike DNA)

218
Q

Flow of genetic information from DNA to proteins

A

Each gene along a DNA molecule directs synthesis of a type of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA interacts with the cell’s protein-synthesizing machinery to direct production of a polypeptide, which folds into all or part of a protein. DNA > RNA > protein.

219
Q

Ribosomes

A

Sits of protein synthesis

220
Q

Polynucleotides

A

Nucleic acids that exist as polymers. Consists of nucleotides. Each monomer has only one phosphate group

221
Q

Nucleotides

A

Monomers. In general, composed of a nitrogen containing (nitrogenous) base, a five-carbon sugar (a pentose), and or one or more phosphate groups.

222
Q

Nucleoside

A

Portion of nucleotide without any phosphate group

223
Q

Pyrimidine

A

Has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. Members of pyrimidine family are cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). Thymine only found in DNA, uracil only found in RNA

224
Q

Purines

A

Larger than pyrimidines. Six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. Adenine (A) and guanine (G).

225
Q

Deoxyribose

Ribose

A

The sugar in DNA. Lacks an oxygen atom on second carbon in the ring

The sugar in RNA

226
Q

Phosphodiester linkage

A

Adjacent nucleotides joined by this. Consists of a phosphate group that links the sugars of two nucleotides. Phosphate attached to a 5’ carbon and the other end has a hydroxyl group on a 3’ carbon

227
Q

Double helix

A

Shape of DNA. Run in opposite 5’ > 3’ directions from each other (antiparallel). Sugar phosphate backbones are on the outside of the helix, and the nitrogenous bases are paired in the interior of the helix. Two strands are complimentary

228
Q

A, T, C, G, U

A

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil
A-T (DNA)
G-C
A-U (RNA)

229
Q

tRNA

A

Transfer RNA. Brings amino acids to the ribosome during synthesis of a polypeptide. Its functional shape results from base pairing btween nucleotides where complementary stretches of the moleule run antiparallel to eachother

Biology 111 (1 decks)

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