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Englisch-Diplom > Bilingualism > Flashcards

Bilingualism Flashcards

1
Q

What is bilingualism?

A
  • result of languages in contact (peoples, cultures, and/or nations in contact)
  • the practice of 2 or more languages
  • one-size-fits-all definition of bilingualism not the answer
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2
Q

how do nations, communities, individuals become bilingual

A 
immigration
colonization
war
crisis
globalization
trade
politics
arbitrary national borders
education
career
tourism
cultural transmission of language
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3
Q

bilingualism vs multilingualism vs plurilingualism?

Mahootian

A

bilingual - better to describe individuals who use more than one lang/dialect

mutlilingual/plurilingual - applied to contexts where there are 2+ languages in a community, w/o expectation that all members of the community know or use all the languages

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4
Q

difficulties in defining bilingualism

A
  • Where does bilingualism ‘start’?

- How to accomodate different lvls of frequency?

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5
Q

6 factors that influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A 
age of acquisition
manner of acquisition
sequence of acquisition
literacy skills
function
fluency
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6
Q

age of acquisition (influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities)

A
  • childhood/adolescence/adulthood
  • hypothesis of ‘critical period’ for lang acquisition - controversial
  • better: ‘optimal’ / ‘sensitive’ period
  • research doesn’t fully support nor refute such a period
  • ability to master some aspects of an L2 lessens with age, takes more effort
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7
Q

manner of acquisition

influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A
  • natural setting, informal (at home)
    vs.
  • formal setting (lang classes, school)
  • closely tied to sequence of acquisition
  • affects ease and rate of acquisition
  • early bilingualism usually starts in the home
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8
Q

sequence of acquisition

influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A
  • simultaneously vs sequentially
  • when both languages learned in childhood - often simultaneously
  • if home language differs from school/majority lang - sequentially
  • languages acquired sequentially often learned in formal classroom settings
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9
Q

literacy skills

influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A
  • whether the individual can read and write in any or all of their languages
  • literacy not a requirement of bilingualism, just as literacy not a requirement of monolingualism
  • literacy can be a factor in what TYPE of bilingual the speaker may be
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10
Q 
function
(influence individuals' bilingual capabilities)
A
  • how often and for what functions languages used
  • bilinguals do not randomly choose which language to use where, when, with whom
  • indication of status and vitality of each lang within the community
  • can serve as predictive tool for lang loss and endangerment
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11
Q

fluency

influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A
  • no agreed-upon measure for fluency; not clear which components should be measured
  • what can/should we reasonably expect from speakers in order to pronounce them bilingual?
  • native-like vs. communicative competence?
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12
Q

proficiency vs fluency

A
  • proficiency implies speaker may not be native-like but able to perform various language tasks easily at various level
  • measuring proficiency: either as set of linguistic structure tasks OR as tasks that measure the speaker’s ability to meet speech community expectations and norms in a native-like manner
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13
Q

self-assessment

influence individuals’ bilingual capabilities

A
  • when bilinguals are asked why they consider themselves to bilingual, they often reply that they are “comfortable” using their languages in (almost) all contexts
  • sense of comfort/belonging - most often described by early bilinguals
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14
Q

defining types of bilinguals

A
  • by age: early, late
  • by method: primary, secondary, elite
  • by function: receptive/passive, productive/active, additive, subtractive, achieved
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15
Q

early bilingualism

A

when child is exposed to more than one language anytime from birth to puberty

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16
Q

late bilingualism

A
  • bilingualism achieved after the sensitive period, and after the first lang has been fully acquired
  • takes place outside of the home
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17
Q

primary bilingualism

A
  • dual competence
  • acquired naturally through contextual demands
  • can overlap with early bilingualism - but can also apply to late bilingualism
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18
Q

secondary bilingualism

A
  • linguistic competence acquired through formal instruction
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19
Q

elite bilingualism

A
  • aka elective bilingualism
  • usually involves 2 or more prestige languages
  • elected language often learned formally in educational setting
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20
Q

receptive (passive) bilingualism

A
  • refers to those who can understand a language when spoken to them
  • cannot (easily) speak it
  • often an outcome of lang learning that takes place in adulthood and in classroom settings
  • learner often doesn’t have opportunity to use lang outside of classroom
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21
Q

productive (active) bilingualism

A
  • individual can both understand and produce each language

- typically they use both languages frequently and in a variety of contexts

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22
Q

additive bilingualism

A
  • describes late and/or secondary bilinguals who are able to acquire a new lang. while maintaining their first language
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23
Q

subtractive bilingualism

A
  • one language replaced with another
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24
Q

achieved bilingualism

A
  • accomplished through formal education

- chosen lang hold promise of more career options than the native language

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25
Q

possible outcomes of contact for Indiginous languages (IndL) and home languages (HmL)

A

shift - monoling. NL - loss/death IndL.

stable bilingualism: HmL + NL

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26
Q

first language

A
  • lang of first exposure

- acquired naturally, w/o instruction, in a home environment

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27
Q

native language

A
  • language first acquired in a home environment

- also denotes association with a nation

28
Q

mother tongue

A
  • an older term

- same meaning as, used interchangeably with ‘native language’

29
Q

home language

A
  • complex term
  • paints a picture of a situation where there is a lang used outside of the home for public activities/events
  • refers to a minority language
30
Q

heritage language

A
  • cultural connections
  • combination of the concepts of minority language, home language, and cultural identity
  • heritage lang speakers may or may not be frequent users of the lang or particularly proficient
  • community language
31
Q

minority language

A
  • carries negative associations and connotations
  • lang with fewer speakers than the majority lang within a community or nation
  • speakers may have fewer opportunities, less economic and political influence, less access to services
32
Q

majority language

A
  • usually carries positive spin
  • often the national language
  • seen as the norm
33
Q

national language

A
  • language associated with the name of the nation
34
Q

official language

A
  • statutory language

- makes a legal statement about the status of a language

35
Q

de facto

A
  • ‘of fact’
  • not by law, but by practice
  • a “de facto bilingual nation”
36
Q

de jure

A
  • ‘by law’
  • affects the entire nation or state
  • lang de jure = official/statutory language
37
Q

lingua franca

A
  • any language in wide use used to bridge the lang gap
  • languages that take on such a role associated with power and prestige
  • may change over time
38
Q

diglossia

A
  • two languages or two varieties of a lang used in different domains for different social and communicative functions
39
Q

primary language
vs.
secondary langauge

A

primary:

  • the language that a speaker uses most often and in more contexts
  • frequently is or becomes the speaker’s dominant language

secondary:
- language used less often

relationship:

  • dependent on domains of use
  • use conditional on value of each language in the larger context
40
Q

dominant language

A
  • the lang in which a speaker is most proficient
  • also may be used most often by the speaker
  • may correspond to the speaker’s first/home language
  • context of community/nation: language used publicly
41
Q

community of practice

A
  • groups who share linguistic and cultural norms and expectations
  • often bound together through language(s) and language use
42
Q

5 general principles of CS

A

faith - faithfully and economically capturing the intended conceptual, semantic-pragmatic, and/or socio-culturally or ideologically grounded meaning

power - position to index or construct power, status, authority, social distance, difference betw self and others

solidarity - index/create solidarity, affiliation, connection, intimacy, similarity betw. self and others

face - manage interpersonal relations, appreciation/tact/deference/respect/politeness

perspective - signal what is assumed to be currently salient pt of view and socio-cognitive orientation in discourse, quotation, repetition, elaboration, key/tone

RANKING of principles community-specific!

43
Q

CS: speaking vs writing?

A
  • written texts: more staying power
  • in written text: monolingualism=norm
  • question = why? when there is time/resources to produce monoling text per expected norm
  • functions of CS may differ
  • structure still guided by basic universal ling. principles
  • signage: informational function + symbolic function (mark ethnic territory, valorize community language)
  • branding, defining of bilingual identity
  • serves to delinate territory (socially + politically)
  • intentional switches in some written discourse part of “texture” (form, organization, content” – present distinctly different message, meta-lvl message
  • where monoling. established norm - when lang-mixed texts found in institutionalized, mainstream publications = indication that established norm shifting/expanding
  • users of biling. variety gaining visibility, legitimacy…
  • highlight + challenge social/pwr imbalances, call for change
  • show shift in balance
  • highlight an ethnic identity as a sort of food in the door of the social order
  • single-word switching in otherwise monoling text
  • –kind of additive bilingualism?
  • –enhance descriptions, authenticity
  • –personal and community identity w/in and outside of community

OTHER factors

  • use of visual boundaries, devices to set off words from differing languages - italics for CS
  • lend an “otherness” to the language
  • otherness not necessarily equivalent to being an outsider
  • type of text/genre! : literary text with intended/overt political message? Magazine with “fluff” content not overtly political? (though mere appearance = political statement)
  • magazine: presence of CS accepted, associated with youth, progressiveness, + ultimately with status
44
Q

types of switches

A

intersentential (btw. utterances)
vs.
intrasentential (within utterances)

intentional
vs.
unintentional

45
Q

intersentential CS

A

between utterances

less frequent than intrasentential

46
Q

intrasentential CS

A

within utterances

47
Q

CS as complex skill

A
  • develops as part of emergent bilinguals’ communicative competence
48
Q

monolingual view of bilingualsm

A
  • not considered current!

- bilinguals defined as possessing native like competencies in each language

49
Q

CS as resource (esp in classroom)

A
  • used in writing-related talk: means of communicating ideas, enactment of cognitive activity (thinking out loud, processing)
  • evaluation, self-regulation of skills
  • metalinguistic insights
  • communicating ideas with peers – emphasis, translating, defining, discussing forms, comparison
50
Q

CS structure - basic universal ling principles (Mahootian)

A

Head-Complement Principle

- relationship betw. syntactic head + complements

51
Q

Gumperz - 6 conversational functions of CS

A 
quotation
addressee specification
interjections/sentence fillers
reiteration/emphasis/clarification
message qualification
personalization vs objectification (involvement or distancing)

(not comprehensive)

52
Q

Grosjean - additional discourse functions of CS

A 
marking group identity
emphasizing solidarity
excluding others from convo
raising status of speaker
adding authority/expertise to message
53
Q

metaphorical switching

A
  • doesn’t really add to content of message
  • meant to deliver extraling. message
  • indication of speaker’s momentary attitudes and emotions
  • inclusion of social variables (class, situation, speakers…) and ideological variables (identity, group affiliation)
54
Q

code-switching (def)

A
  • the use of several lang or sociolects in the same convo or sentence
  • discursive practice, influenced by existing power relations such as the distribution of ling resources and the legitimacy of various knowledges
  • act of changing from one lang or dialect to another
  • systematic use of 2 or more lang or varieties of the same lang during oral or written discourse
  • variable practice!
  • variation betw. vs w/in communities
  • in most current lit: used interchangably with codemixing
55
Q

arguments for considering CS from socioling perspectives

A
  • study of CS developed in tandem with study of socioling
  • CS = construct derived from behavior of bilinguals
  • socioling. factors = prime source of variation in CS behavior
56
Q

3 types of factors that contribute to the form taken by CS
(Gardner-Chloros)
+
criticism

A

There are overlaps and interrelations betw the 3 sets of factors

  • factors independent of particular speakers + particular circumstances (e.g. power relations, prestige)
  • factors directly related to speakers, indiv and as members of a subgroup (relationships, attitudes, ideologies, indiv. competence)
  • factors w/in conversation (tools for structuring discourse)

CRITICISM

  • (Wodak)
  • conversation-analytical approach
  • argues against idea that codes have meaning independent of local context
  • participants define what actually counts as CS (NOT external categories)
57
Q

hegemonic multilingualism

A
  • patterns of control will lead to choices of more prestigious languages
  • multilingual context with power dynamic will lead to choices of more prestigious languages
  • e.g. EU institutions have progressively moved towards narrowing their linguistic repertoires, set of traditional working languages (3 vs 23)
58
Q

multilingualisms; continuum of multilingual practices

– factors for language choice

A
  • highly context-dependent
  • beyond monoling / multiling dichotomy
  • co-text related factors: topic, prof. jargon (lang for spec. purporses), lang of preceding speaker, politeness
  • genre-related factors: structure of meeting, functions
  • language/ideological factors: perceived prestige
  • power-related factors: intention to win an argument, attempts to control debate, set agenda etc
  • personality-/relationship-oriented factors: preferred lang choice, group dynamics, traditions of community practice
59
Q

borrowing

A
  • borrowings = loan words
  • any words or phrases taken from one lang and used by monoling speakers of another language
  • often fill lexical gaps
  • pronunciation changes to adapt to sounds of host language
  • borrowings sometimes imparts different message than if same word used in host language
  • distinguished from code-switches by the fact that they’ve become part of monolingual lexicon
60
Q

unintentional CS

A
  • motivated by combination of ling and psycholing issues
  • lexical gaps
  • freq of speaker’s use of each word in each lang
61
Q

intentional CS

A
  • of special interest to sociolinguists
  • meaningful, intent
  • relationship between lang choice and identity
  • discourse tool
  • meta-message
62
Q

cultural CS

A
  • codeswitching to accomodate cultural expectations

- pressure to conform

63
Q

speech community

A
  • well-defined limits
  • common structural base
  • unified set of socioling norms
  • share norms and expectations regarding the use of language
  • delimiting/defining a speech community = first step in obtaining good data for research
  • for determining change: long-term biling community
64
Q

determining contact-induced change

A

Comparisons of bilingual varieties with benchmarks

  • with pre-contact variety / earlier stage of same variety
  • – see if change has occurred at all
  • with non-contact varieties of both of the languages
  • — diagnostic differences, conflict sites, places of structural divergence
  • bilingual varieties with each other
  • – do bilinguals mix their two grammars or keep them separate?
  • comparison of ling patterns in the context of presence and absence of CS

Overall rates of use

  • not dependable
  • has to include quantitative element though
  • overall rate difference doesn’t give info about direction of change
  • Structure of variation
65
Q

contact-induced change hypothesis

A

Bilinguals’ use of 2 langauges spawns similarity between their grammars

Englisch-Diplom (2 decks)

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