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BI 305 Microbiology Study > BI 305 Exam 5 Chp 23, Tiny Earth, and Beer 101 > Flashcards

BI 305 Exam 5 Chp 23, Tiny Earth, and Beer 101 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Risks of Microbiomes

A

Opportunistic pathogens if some species get in the wrong place.

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2
Q

Benefits of Microbiomes

A

Stimulate the immune system.
Provide competition for pathogens.
Produce antibiotics and antibacterial peptides to fight against competition.
The gut microbiome communicates with peptides to the brain.
Send signals such as feeling satiated.
The gut microbiome generates short-chain fatty acids for human host cells to digest.
Provide nutrition, vitamins, and degrade materials that we cannot do on our own.

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3
Q

Importance of Microbiomes

A

The microbiome plays a role in obesity, allergies, liver disease, GI syndromes, and possibly even psychiatric disorders as the gut microbiome can influence the brain.

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4
Q

Skin Microbiome

A

More acidic pH=4-6.
More Gram-positive organisms live there.
Lots of lysozyme on the skin.
Acne can be caused by a bacterial infection.

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5
Q

Eye Microbiome

A

Bathed in antimicrobial lysozyme.
Only a few bacteria can live there.
Streptococcus pneumoniae and other bacteria can cause infection.
Ex: Pink eye.

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6
Q

Oral and Nasal Cavity Microbiome

A

Organisms can attach to teeth and eat at the enamel to cause cavities.
Bacteria also live in several areas of the nose, mouth, and throat and can cause infections.

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7
Q

Respiratory tract Microbiome

A

Uses the mucociliary elevator to make sure most bacteria are moved to the stomach to be degraded and so they don’t habitat the esophagus.
When this fails, you can end up with a cold or respiratory infection.

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8
Q

Stomach Microbiome

A

Low pH kills most bacteria.
Most notably Heliobacter pylori can inhabit the stomach mucous and increase the pH around it by secreting the urease enzyme.

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9
Q

Intestine Microbiome

A

Higher pH of 8 due to base secreted by the pancreas to neutralize stomach acid.
Changes in the intestinal microbiome can lead to infections (ex: Clostridium difficile) or lead to disorders such as Crohn’s and UC.

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10
Q

Genitourinary tract Microbiome

A

The urinary tract is considered sterile unless there is an infection causing a UTI.
Vagina has its own microbiome.

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11
Q

What is the SCFA acetate associated with?

A

Acetate is thought to increase obesity because it promotes inflammation, and is used for lipid synthesis.

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12
Q

How are microbiomes associated with obesity?

A

Gnotobiotic mice, mice without a microbiome, were tested.
If they got an obese fecal transplant, they gained weight.
Did not occur if they got a lean fecal transplant.
When housed together, the obese mouse started to resemble the lean mouse.
The reverse was not found.
SCFAs proportions are linked with obesity.

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13
Q

What is the SCFA butyrate associated with?

A

Butyrate is thought to decrease obesity because it inhibits inflammation, and stimulates the production of hormones that limits hunger.

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14
Q

What is the SCFA propionate associated with?

A

Propionate is thought to affect weight either way because it increases inflammation but also diverts fatty acids away from cholesterol synthesis.
Also stimulates the production of hormones to limit hunger.

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15
Q

What are the characteristics of the innate immune system?

A 
No priming. 
Second defense after physical barriers such as skin and mucous membranes. 
Acts quickly. 
Non-specific. 
Responds by detection and elimination.
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16
Q

What are the characteristics of the adaptive immune system?

A 
Needs priming. 
Slow defense. 
Specific
Contains memory for certain pathogens by generating antibodies. 
Cells are not phagocytic.
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17
Q

What are Hematopoietic stem cells?

A

Hematopoietic stem cells are the precursor bone marrow cells.
They divide into myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells that are still in the bone.

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18
Q

What are myeloid stem cells?

A

Myeloid stem cells differentiate into cells from the innate immune system.

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19
Q

What are mast cells?

A

High-affinity receptors for IgE, which are associated with allergic responses.
Mast cells are similar to basophils in structure but it is found in the mucosa and connective tissue.
Stationary residents in those areas.

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20
Q

What are myeloblast cells and what do they differentiate into?

A

Innate immune system cell.

Differentiates into eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils.

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21
Q

What are eosinophils?

A

Produce toxic proteins to destroy microbes and release vasoactive agents.
Important for killing multicellular parasites like helminth worms.

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22
Q

What are basophils?

A

Produce toxic proteins to destroy microbes and release vasoactive agents.
High-affinity receptors for IgE, which is associated with allergic responses.

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23
Q

What are neutrophils?

A 
Highly phagocytic. 
Catch bacteria in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). 
Is a spew lattice of DNA. 
Has anti-microbial properties. 
Dominant in early stages of infection.
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24
Q

What are monoblasts and what do they divide into?

A

Innate immune cells.

Divide into monocytes which divide into dendritic cells and macrophages.

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25
Q

What are dendritic cells?

A

Abundant in the epidermis of the skin, mucous membranes, thymus, and lymph nodes.
Phagocytic.
Activate adaptive immunity responses.
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for T cells.

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26
Q

What are macrophages?

A

Dominant in later stages of infection.
Purposes:
The first defense is innate immunity.
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for T cells.

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27
Q

What are lymphoid stem cells?

A

Differentiate into adaptive immune cells.

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28
Q

What NK cells?

A

NK cells kill infected host proteins who present abnormal MHC proteins by inserting toxic granzymes.

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29
Q

How do NK cells kill host cells?

A

NK cells release perforin (perforates membrane (makes a hole in the membrane)) and granzymes (proteases causing apoptosis).
NK releases granzymes to go through the hole.

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30
Q

What are granzymes?

A

From NK cells.
Granzymes are cytotoxic and convince the cell to undergo apoptosis.
Kills intracellular pathogens as well.
Granzymes damage mitochondria so cytochromes are released.
Released cytochromes activate systolic host proteases called caspases (cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed proteases) that degrade a lot of macromolecules and structures in the cell.

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31
Q

Why do NK cells not want to lyze the host cell?

A

That would release the microbes inside it.

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32
Q

What is anti-body-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC)?

A

For NK cells.
NK cells can bind to the Fc region of an antibody, so when they bind to a host cell surrounded by antibodies, they kill the infected host cells.

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33
Q

What are T cells?

A

T-cells (lymphocytes) bind to these APCs and stimulate antibody production and cytotoxic cells to kill host infected cells.

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34
Q

Why is the beer-making process so intensive?

A

The process is very intensive due to having to make sure everything is sanitized.
Also, the temperature and pH have to be carefully controlled to get the right amount of sugar released that yeast can metabolize.

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35
Q

What is malting?

A

Malting=allowing grain to germinate.

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36
Q

What is milling?

A

Milling=combining water and seed.

37
Q

What is the mash-in process?

A

Mash in=gelatinzing and hydrolyzing the grains to remove bacteria, proteins, enzymes, and sugars and breaking down as much as possible until what is left is what the yeast can consume.

38
Q

What is lautering?

A

Lautering=separating spent grain from wort.

39
Q

What is the purpose of boiling when making beer?

A

Boiling=sterilizing the wort by boiling water.
Also concentrates the sugar.
Hops are added.

40
Q

What is the whirlpool process while making beer?

A

Whirlpool=clarifies the wort by removing turb, protein, and hop solids, through settling.

41
Q

What is the heat exchange process while making beer?

A

Heat exchange=reduce the wort to the temperature desired for fermentation.

42
Q

What is the fermentation process?

A

Fermentation=wort is transferred to a fermentation tank and the yeast is added (pitched).

43
Q

What is the conditioning process while making beer?

A

Conditioning=letting the beer age and yeast changing the biochemistry of the beer.

44
Q

What is the filtering process while making beer?

A

Filtering=removing hops.

45
Q

What is the hygiene hypothesis?

A

Hygiene hypothesis=growing up against more organisms protects from inflammatory diseases.

46
Q

How can Cutibacterium acnes cause acne?

A

Cutibacterium acnes causes acne by converting oil from the skin into fatty acids.
Cutibacterium acnes digests triglycerides in the oil.
This promotes inflammation of the sweat gland.
The result of inflammation is the growth of a blackhead, a fluid-filled sac.

47
Q

What are bacteremias?

A

Bacteremia=normal organisms that get into the blood.

48
Q

What is the mucociliary elevator?

A

Mucociliary elevator=beating of cilia that move organisms and food down the esophagus.
When this fails, you can end up with a cold or respiratory infection.

49
Q

What are lectins?

A

Lectins=enzymes released into the mucous that kill microbes that would normally cause inflammation.
Makes sure microbes don’t touch epithelial cells.

50
Q

How can anaerobic microorganisms grow on the skin or the mouth since both are exposed to air?

A

Forming biofilms with them in the center and aerobic bacteria on the surface.
Other organisms are also around it that use oxygen.
In an area of the mouth that doesn’t come into contact with much oxygen.
Has some enzymes to destroy ROS.

51
Q

What is dysbiosis?

A

Dysbiosis=imbalance with microbiome or accidental penetration beyond the normal site of colonization.

52
Q

Why are most of the organisms that grow in the gut Gram-negative?

A

LPS layer of Gram-negative can help them survive proteases.

The outer membrane gives them extra protection.

53
Q

What are toll-like receptors (TLRs)?

A

Protein receptors that bind to LPS, flagella, lipoteichoic acids, and nucleic acids.

54
Q

What are pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs?

A

The LPS, flagella, lipoteichoic acids, and nucleic acids, and TLRs bind to.

55
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Chemicals that stimulate the immune system.

Also controls the intensity and duration of the immune response.

56
Q

What is cytolysis?

A

Cytolosis=lysis of cells.

57
Q

What is the difference between infection and disease?

A

Infection is when there is contact with an infectious microbe.
The disease is when the microbe attaches and grows inside the body and the immune system is activated.

58
Q

What is the first defense of the body?

A

Skin and mucous membranes.

59
Q

What is the second defense of the body?

A

The second defense includes inflammation and fever caused by lymphocytes such as macrophages, NK cells, and neutrophils.

60
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

Leukocytosis=increase in WBC count.

61
Q

What is leukopenia?

A

Leukopenia=decrease in WBC count.

62
Q

What is a differential white blood cell count?

A

A differential white blood cell count=number and type of WBC in a sample of 100 WBC can indicate an increase or decrease in leukocytes.

63
Q

What are polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)?

A

Innate immune cells with 5 lobe nuclei.

Also called granulocytes.

64
Q

What are monocytes?

A

Monocytes are not active until they enter the tissue and mature to macrophages (become phagocytic) or dendritic cells.

65
Q

What bacterial structure could help a cell evade capture in a NET?

A

Capsules.
So they are more slippery.
A special movement to evade.
Endonucleases to cut DNA NET.

66
Q

What are MHC I proteins?

A

MHC I is a system of proteins that helps the body recognize self.

67
Q

How do WBC counts change during infection?

A

Usually increases but which one increases differs with different infections.

68
Q

What does the lymphatic system consist of?

A

The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissue, thymus, and red bone marrow.

69
Q

What are lymph nodes?

A

Sites of B (marrow) and T (thymus) cell activation.

70
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary lymphoid sites?

A

Primary lymphoid tissue is where B and T cells develop while secondary tissue is where encounters may occur.

71
Q

What are the main components of beer?

A

Barley, hops, water, and yeast.

72
Q

What is the Hot Liquor Tank (HLT)?

A

Hot Liquor Tank (HLT)=source of hot water.

For cleaning and making beer.

73
Q

What is the mash tun?

A

Mash tun=where grains and water are added together.

74
Q

What is gelatinization?

A

Gelatinization=starch granules burst.

75
Q

Why does the temperature and pH of the beer-making process have to be tightly regulated?

A

The right temperature and pH will activate the correct enzymes to break down the sugars in the grain.

76
Q

What is saccharification?

A

Saccharification=breaks down seed components so that the yeast can use them.

77
Q

What is wort?

A

Sugar + protein.

78
Q

What are dextrins?

A

Undigested sugar branch points that increase the calories present in beer.

79
Q

What are amylases?

A

Digest sugars in grains.
Alpha-amylase cleaves one at a time.
Beta-amylase breaks 2 at a time.
Amyloglucosidase=hydrolases sequentially both linear and branched sugar linkages.

80
Q

What is sparging?

A

Part of the lautering process.

Sparge=rinsing the spent grain with heated water to the boil kettle to get as much of the sugars as possible.

81
Q

Why are hops added to beer?

A

For flavor, aroma, and bitterness.

82
Q

How does the boiling process alter the taste of beer?

A

Low boiling time leads to more retention of flavor and aroma.
High boiling time leads to more bitter beer.

83
Q

How is light beer made?

A

Less dextrins are present due to more use of amyloglucosidase.

84
Q

Why do some beer bottles explode?

A

Fruit beers add fruit juice while yeast is in the beer. The yeast starts fermenting again and the pressure cracks the bottle.

85
Q

What are vegetations?

A

Biofilms inside of a glycocalyx

86
Q

What is the complement system?

A

Innate immune response composed of several soluble factors in the blood that responds instantly to infection and make holes in bacteria.

87
Q

What is plasma?

A

Contains important elements for clotting.

88
Q

What is the purpose of lymph nodes?

A

Traps organisms that drain from nearby tissue.

BI 305 Microbiology Study (5 decks)

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