BHAKTI MOVEMENT - CAUSE AND EFFECTS

Question 1

Point out one similarity and dissimilarity between Lingayats and Nayanars.

Answer 1

Similarity
Both Lingayats and Nayanars protested against caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas.

Dissimilarity
The Alvars were devotees of Vishnu, whereas the Nayanars were devotees of Shiva.

Question 2

Point out any two similarities between the philosophy of Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev.

Answer 2

Two similarities between philosophy of Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev are:

1. Both Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev advocated a form of Nirguna Bhakti.
2. Both Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev rejected idol worship, also rejected sacrifices and ritual baths.

Question 3

Point out one difference and one similarity between Be-Shari’a and Ba-Shari’a Sufi traditions.

Answer 3

Difference
The Ba-Shari’a traditions followed Shari’a i.e. the Islamic law. However, the Be-Shari’a were not bound by it.

Similarity
They both ignored rituals and observed extreme forms of asceticism.

Question 4

Mention any two sources to know about Bhakti and Sufi traditions from 8th century to 18th century.

Answer 4

Sources are as follows:

1. Textual sources were available to know about Bhakti and Sufi traditions from 8th century to 18th century. 2. 2. These textual sources included composition attributed to poet saints.
2. Most of them expressed themselves orally in regional languages used by common man.
3. Historians also got information from the biographies of saints written by their followers.

Question 5

How did Karaikkal Ammaiyar become the greatest figure of Nayanar tradition? Explain.

Answer 5

1. Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a devotee of Shiva.
2. She adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order to attain her goal.
3. Her composition was a challenge to patriarchal norms of the society and it was preserved with the Nayanar tradition.
4. In this way, she became the greatest figure of Nayanar’s philosophy.

Question 6

Name the major anthology compiled by the Alvars which is also described as the Tamil Veda. How did various chiefdoms in the Tamil region help them in the early first millennium CE?

Answer 6

1. Nalayira Divyaprabandham complied by the Alvars is also described as the Tamil Veda.
2. There were several important chiefdoms in the Tamil region in the early first millennium CE.
3. Rulers like Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas were patron of Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples.
4. Chola rulers were the patrons to Shiva temples in Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Question 7

The Lingayats disapproved certain practices of the Dharmashashtras. Give two examples.
or
Mention the two ideas of Brahmanical system challenged by the Lingayats.

Answer 7

Followers of Basavanna were known as Virashaivas or Lingayats. They challenged the Brahmanical system in the following ways:

1. They challenged the idea of caste and the ‘pollution’ attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas.
2. They questioned the theory of rebirth

Question 8

‘The Message of Guru Nanak Devji was based on divinity’. Mention any two aspects of it.

Answer 8

The message of Guru Nanak Devji was based on divinity. Two aspects of it are:

1. Absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form.
2. He proposed a simple way to connect to the divine by remembering and repeating the divine name.

Question 9

Kabir Bijak and Kabir Granthavali are the two distinct but overlapping traditions. How are they preserved?

Answer 9

Both the traditions are preserved in the following ways:
• The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabir panth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh.
• The’Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan.

Question 10

Who were Alvars and Nayanars?

Mention the support they got from the Chola rulers.

Answer 10

Alvars:
Alvars were those people who immersed themselves in devotion to Vishnu.

Nayanars
Nayanars were the devotees of Shiva. They initiated the early Bhakti Movement during the 6th century CE.

Support from Chola Rulers Alvars and Nayanars got support from the Chola rulers in the form of land grants for the construction of splendid temples with stone and metals sculpture to recreate the visions of these popular saints who sang in the language of people.

Question 11

“The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the ‘pollution’ attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas,” Critically examine the statement.

Answer 11

1. The Lingayats or Virshaivas emerged in the 12th century in Karnataka under the leadership of Basavanna.
2. They worshipped Shiva in his manifestation as a linga and usually wore a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over their left shoulder.
3. They believed that on death the devotee would be united with Shiva and would not return to this world.
4. They challenged some important ideas given in our dharmashastras.
5. The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the ‘pollution’ attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. 6. They did not accept the theory of rebirth.
6. They did not follow the varna system in our society given by the Brahmanas.
7. These won the large number of followers among the marginalised section of the society.
8. Moreover, the Lingayats encouraged certain practices like post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
9. Our dharmashastras disapproved these practices. 11. Even the Lingayats did not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the dharmashastras. 12. They ceremonially buried their dead.

In this way the lingayats rejected the caste system and other practices followed in our society given by the Brahmanical scriptures.

Question 12

Identify the relationship of the Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu with the state from the eighth to the eighteenth century.

Answer 12

The relationship of the Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu with the state is discussed below:
• Some of the earliest bhakti movements were led by the Alvars (literally, those who were immersed in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (who were devotees of Shiva).
• They preached their message in Tamil. During their travel they identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities. And these were developed as centres of pilgrimage.
• One of the major themes in Tamil bhakti hymns was the poet’s opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. The main reason for this opposition was competition between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage.
• The Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.
• The Chola rulers constructed many Shiva temples e.g. Chidambram, Thanjavur and
Gangaikandacholapuram. They done this to proclaim their own power and status.
• This was also the period when some of the most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze scuplture were produced.
• Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered (admire) by the Vellala peasants. Not surprisingly rulers tried to win their support as well.

Thus, are can say that the Chola rulers had intimate relations with the both Alvars and Nayanars as they had much honour and status in the society.

Question 13

Explain the teachings of Kabir. How did he describe the ultimate reality through his poems?
or
Explain the significance of Kabir’s poems and the traditions he drew to describe the ultimate reality.

Answer 13

1. The historians tried to reconstruct Kabir’s life and timings through a study of compositions attributed to him and later hagiographies.
2. Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in three distinct traditions, viz, Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali and Adi Granth Sahib.
3. All these compilations were made long after the death of Kabir. Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects.

The significance of Kabir’s poems is as follows:

SOURCE OF INSPIRATION
Kabir’s poems have been a source of inspiration to those who questioned rigid and unrooted social institutions, ideas and practices in search of God.

COMBINATION OF HINDU AND ISLAM
The significance of Kabir’s poem also lies in the fact that his teachings were inspired by both Hinduism and Islam which sometimes expressed diverse and conflicting ideas. For instance, some poems imbibed Islamic ideas and used monotheism and attacked Hindu polytheism and idol worship while others used the Sufi concept of zikr and ishq to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran i.e. remembrance of God’s name.

Kabir’s ideas crystallised through dialogue and debate and his legacy was claimed by several groups. The traditions, he drew to describe ultimate reality through his poems are:

ISLAMIC TRADITION
He described the ultimate reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
Vedantic Tradition:
He used the terms Alakh (Unseen), Nirakar (Formless), Brahman, Atman, etc to describe the ultimate reality.

YOGIC TRADITION
Other terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or Shunya (emptiness) were drawn from yogic tradition.

Question 14

Explain how the biography of the saint poetess Mirabai has been primarily constructed. How did she defy the norms of society?

Answer 14

1. Reconstruction of Mirabai’s: Biography The reconstruction of biographies of Mirabai has been done from the bhajans composed by herself (transmitted orally for centuries).
2. Royal affiliations of Mirabai From the bhajans it has been reconstructed that she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar. She was married to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan, which had been done against her wishes so she defied her husband. She even refused to submit to the traditional role of wife and mother.
3. Recognition of Krishna as lover: She recognised Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu, as her lover. Because of her behaviour, her in-laws once tried to poison her, but she managed to escape the in-laws home and preferred to live as a wandering saint and composing the songs of bhakti and love for the Krishna. Her compositions are known for intense expression of her emotion.
4. Defiance of social barriers: In some traditions, Mirabai has been mentioned as a disciple of Raidas, a leather worker. It indicates that she did not recognise the bonds of caste system and the practices of the society. For her intense love of Krishna, she rejected all the comforts of her husband’s palace and donned the saffron robe of the renouncer or the white robe of widow.
5. Popular source of inspiration: Mirabai, now-a-days recognised as the source of inspiration instead of attracting a sect or group of followers. Still she and her songs are popular among the poor or ‘low caste’ population in the State of Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Question 15

The One Lord:
Here is a composition attributed to Kabir Tell me, brother, how can there be No one lord of the world but two?
Who led you so astray?
God is called by many names.
Names like Allah, Ram, Karim, Keshav, Hari and Hazrat. Gold may be shaped into rings and bangles. Isn’t it gold all the same? Distinctions are only in words that we invent.
Kabir says they are both mistaken. Neither can find the only Ram. One kills the goat, the other cows. They waste their lives in disputation.
1. Name any two scriptures, in which verses, ascribed to Kabir, have been complied.
2. How did Kabir describe the ‘Ultimate Reality’?
3. Explain the arguments give by Kabir against the lords of the world of different communities.
4. Do you agree with Kabir? Give your own views as well.

Answer 15

1. The two scriptures in which verses of Kabir are found are:
   (a) Kabir Bijak
   (b) Kabir Granthavali
2. Kabir described the ‘Ultimate Reality’ by drawing the ranges of traditions such as from Islam, he had drawn the Ultimate Reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. Several terms from the vedantic traditions, such as Alakh, Nirakar, Brahmana, Atman were also taken.
3. Kabir used monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu polytheism and idol worship and said God is one. God is the ultimate reality and one lord of the world, although he is known by several names.
4. Yes, I agree with Kabir’s view. The God is only one inspite of having several names. We the people of different religions worship him differently, but God is the ultimate reality and he is one.

Question 16

1. Explain the teachings of Guru Nanak.

2. Did he wish to establish a new religion?

Answer 16

1. We can understand his message which were spelt out in his teachings and hymns called Shabad in Punjabi. The teachings of Baba Guru Nanak are as follows
   • Nanak repudiated the external practices of the existing religions.
   • He advocated the specific form of bhakti i.e. Nirguna bhakti.
   • He rejected the sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.
   • According to him, the absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or any specific form.
   • There is only a simple way to connect to the divine by remembering and repeating the divine name.
   • He sang his compositions in various ragas while his disciple, Mardana played the rabab.
2. Guru Nanak Dev did not wish to establish a new religion. He organised his followers into a community. He set up rules for congregational worship (sangat) involving collective recitation. He appointed his disciple Angad as the preceptor (guru) after him. After the death of Guru Nanak Dev, his followers consolidated their own practices and distinguished themselves from both Hindus and Muslims. The practice of selecting Guru was followed for nearly 200 years by his followers.

Question 17

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow. Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. At the same time, there was a second process at work that of the Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. In fact, many beliefs and practices were shaped through a continuous dialogue between what sociologists have described as “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.

1. Why were shudras and women excluded from vedic learning in vedic period?
2. According to historians what was the second process of integration of cults?

Answer 17

1. In Vedic period women and Shudras were generally excluded from Vedic learning because women was treated like a thing which was kept at home only and not allowed to go outside and get education. Thus, prohibited from learning Vedas.
   In the same way due to Varna system Shudras treated as the lowest caste and were consider to do only polluted jobs. Thus, prohibited to learn Vedas.
2. In the second process of integration of cults the Brahmanas accept and rework on the beliefs and practies of women and Shudras and other social categories.

Question 18

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or atleast attempted to reform the system. To some extent this is corroborated by the fact that Bhaktas hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”.
The importance of the traditions of the Alvars and Nayanars was sometimes indicated by the claim that their compositions were as important as the Vedas. For instance, one of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.
1. What was the attitude of Alvars and Nayanars towards caste system?
2. Give an example which indicates that the composition of Alvars was as significant as Vedas of Brahmanas?

Answer 18

1. According to some scholars both Alvars and Nayanars were opposed to caste system made by the Brahmanas. In this regard, they initiated a movement to protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. By these efforts, people from various social backgrounds joined the movement, ranging from Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from the castes considered ‘untouchable’.
2. The importance of the traditions of the Alvars and Nayanars was sometimes indicated by the claim that their compositions were as important as the Vedas. For instance, one of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas: