Best Practices in Management: Projects, Staffing, Scheduling, and Budgeting Flashcards
1
Q
The 4 Steps of Strategic Management Process
A
- strategic objectives and analysis
- strategic formulation
- strategic implementation
- strategic evaluation and control
2
Q
Strategy/Action Plan
A
- defines an organizations competitive advantage
- bridges the gap between long term vision and short terms decisions
3
Q
Objectives
A
a series of short, measurable actions that state what/when/ and how much will be done
4
Q
- Negotiator (managerial role)
A
negotiating budget, labor, and other formal disputes
5
Q
- Resources allocator (managerial role)
A
making decisions of who gets what, how much, and when
6
Q
- Disturbance handler (managerial role)
A
involuntarily reacting to conditions
7
Q
- Entrepreneur (managerial role)
A
seeking to improve business, adapt to changing markets, and react to opportunities
8
Q
- Spokesperson (managerial role)
A
present info to people outside the organization
9
Q
- Disseminator (managerial role)
A
processing specific privileged info to people outside the organization
10
Q
- Monitor (managerial role)
A
continuously scanning environment for info, and talking with liaisons and subordinates
11
Q
- Liason (managerial role)
A
establish and maintain contacts outside the chain of command
12
Q
- Leader (managerial role)
A
being able to influence others towards a goal
13
Q
- Figurehead (managerial role)
A
ceremonial duties i.e. welcoming official visitors and signing legal documents
14
Q
The 3 Managerial Roles Categories
A
- interpersonal: relational interaction and management
- informational: gathering, analyzing, storing, and disseminating info
- decisional: the responsibility of making choices on behalf of the organization
15
Q
The 10 Most Common Managerial Roles
A
- figurehead
- leader
- liason
- monitor
- disseminator
- spokesperson
- entrepreneur
- disturbance handler
- resource allocator
- negotiator
16
Q
Role
A
an organized set of behaviors
17
Q
Organizational Heirarchy
A
top, middle, frontline, and team leaders
18
Q
Business Indicators
A
numbers indicating a positive or negative trend like revenue, profit margin, and amount of debt
19
Q
The 5 Fundamental Management Functions
A
- planning
- organizing
- leading
- coordinating
- controlling
20
Q
Efficiently vs. Effectively
A
Max level of productivity vs. achieving best results
21
Q
Contingency Leadership
A
theorizes that effective group performance depends on the match between the leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence
22
Q
The 2 Types of Behavioral Dimensions
A
- consideration: emphasis on employee’s feelings and relationships
- initiating structure: a focus on tasks to achieve goals
23
Q
Manager vs. Leader
A
- leaders may not have formal power, but followers give the leader power through compliance
- managers have to relay on formal power to get subordinates to accomplish goals
24
Q
The 4 Major Components of Leadership
A
- idealized influence
- inspirational motivation
- intellectual stimulation
- individualized consideration
25
Full-range Theory of Leadership
a component of transactional leadership which enhances morale and motivation by connecting the employees sense of identity to a project and the collective identity of the organization
26
Transactional Theories of Leadership
- leadership based on an exchange between the leader and follower
- relationship is positive and benefits both parties
27
Low LPC Score
suggests that a leader relies more on the nature of the tasks to drive leadership
28
High LPC Score
suggests that a person has a positive orientation towards human relations
29
LPC Scale
least preferred coworker to determine which traits a leader likes least in a coworker
30
Contingency Models 3 Key Areas
1. Personality of leader
2. Task
3. Whether the leader can exert control over the group
31
Situational Control
the interaction of leadership style and the situation
32
Contingency Theory
predicts that effective leaders are those with personal traits that match the needs of the situation in which they find themselves
33
Behavioral Theory of Leadership
- a theory that is based on the premise that behaviors are conditioned as a result of experiences within the environment
- anyone can be trained to behave in a preferred way
34
The 7 Core Traits of a Successful Leader
1. drive
2. leadership motivation
3. honesty and integrity
4. self-confidence
5. cognitive ability
6. knowledge of the business
7. charisma, creativity, and flexibility
35
"Great-man" theory of Leadership
- the theory that certain traits produce certain behaviors, and patterns of behavior.
- patterns of behavior are consistent in different circumstances and people are born with these traits
36
Making Leadership a Movement Steps
1. decide you cause
2. set your vision
3. make the vision a reality
37
Mission Statement
what an organization needs to do in present time to achieve the vision
38
Vision Statement
where the organization wants to be in the future
39
Leadership
the ability to effectively communicate your vision to people and unite them behind a shared mission
40
Vision
- A clear, distinctive, and specific view of what a company would like to achieve in the future
- broad description instead of specific targets
41
Balance Sheet
shows a list of assets, liabilities, and stockholders equity--usually at the end of the month, quarter, or year
42
Income Statement
shows the change in the financial status of an organization over a specified
43
Managerial Accounting
prepares financial statements and report for internal use
44
Financial Accounting
the subdivision of the organization's accounting department that prepares financial reports for people external to the organization
45
Budget
a tool managers use to plan and control the use of the scarce resources, and reveals the company's objectives and how management intends to acquire and use resources to attain objectives
46
Net Income
the "bottom-line"--an individual's income after taking taxes and other deductions into account
47
Master Budget
an overall budget an organization uses to make sure its expenses in all areas fall within its financial parameters
48
Income Statement
a summary of all of an organization's revenues and expenses during a predefined period of time
49
KPI (Key Performance Indicator)
a measurement of how effectively a company is achieving its key business objectives
50
Balanced Scorecard
semi-standardized strategic management tool used to analyze and improve key performance indicators
51
Performance Metric
data that is obtained to measure an organization's behavior, activities, and performance relating to a range of a stakeholder needs including shareholders, customers, and employees
52
What's the difference between a goal, objective, strategy, and tactic?
goal: the overarching success an organization is striving for--more general that objectives
objective: the devices used to measure the success and failure of an organization
strategy: the "how" to meet objectives--not as specific as tactics
tactics: one more level of specificity as to what to do implement strategies
53
SMART Goals
```
goals that are:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Relevant to the mission
Time-bound
```
54
Tactical Plans
- 1 year or less
- translate strategic plans into specific proposals for actions that need approval from up and down an organization
- short term, emphasizes current operations of various parts of an organization
- answers the what, who, and how
55
Strategic Goals
- 3-5 years
- long term, has lasting consequences, are expensive, have high levels of resource commitment, and include decision involving tech usage, labor and equipment organization, and capacity to meet customer demands
56
Long-term Strategy vs. Short-term Strategy
long-term: equates to strategic goals
| short-term: equates to tactical plans
57
Economies of Scale
a savings in costs to produce a product and the ability to produce it in large amounts of numbers
58
3. Market Segmentation (competitive strategy)
a cross between cost leadership and differentiation--targets finding specific market segments which are not otherwise tapped by larger firms
59
2. Differentiation (competitive strategy)
refers to an organization's ability to create a good that is hard to replicate
60
1. Cost leadership (competitive strategy)
pertains to an organization's ability to create economies of scale through extremely efficient operations that produce a large volume
61
3 Strategies of Competitive Strategy
1. cost leadership
2. differentiation
3. market segmentation
62
Core Competencies
the skills and area of knowledge shared across business units that distinguish a firm and provides competitive advantage
63
Customer-Drive Strategies
any activities a company needs to undertake in order to meet the few needs of many customers, or the broad needs of customers in a narrow market
64
Market Position
the customer's perception of a brand or product in relation to its competition
65
Centralized System of Administration
- decisions are made by a few key people and passed down to employees
- more consistency and control
66
Decentralized System of Administration
decision making is spread
67
Return on Investment
the profit received for investing, which is calculated by dividing the amount of money gained by the cost of investment in a percent
68
4 Essential Components of Corporate Strategy
1. allocation of resources
2. organizational design
3. portfolio management
4. strategic trade-offs
69
The 4 Categories of Operational Strategy
1. developing a well-integrated company using corporate strategies
2. producing products and services with a focus on customer service
3. maximizing the organization’s core competencies
4. creating a system to measure competitive priorities
70
Operational Strategy
the methods companies use to reach their goals
71
Kaplan/Norton 6 Stage Strategy Execution Approach
1. develop the strategy
2. plan the strategy
3. align organization with strategy
4. plan operations
5. monitor and learn
6. test and adapt strategy
72
2 Types of Organizational Change
- first order: incremental, piecemeal change
| - second order: nonlinear and reflects a movement different than anything seen before
73
6. Continuous Leader
works to create an agile and responsive organization that can quickly anticipate threats and seize opportunities as change initiatives occur
74
5. Integrated Leader
searches for ways to use the structure and discipline as individual change projects are created and implemented
75
4. Bolt-on Leader
- strives to gain control of a changing situation by attaching change management techniques to projects to pressure for change
- more concerned about helping others change than creating change itself
76
3. Panacea Leader
believes that the way to respond to pressure for change is to communicate and motivate, understanding that resistance to change is inevitable
77
2. Rational Leader
focuses on how to control change with logical planning and clearly defined steps
78
1. Anti-change Leader
seeks to avoid change as much as possible
79
6 Leadership Styles Related to Change
1. anti-change
2. rational
3. panacea
4. bolt-on
5. integrated
6. continuous
80
Decentralized Operations
daily operations decision-making responsibilities are delegated by top managers to middle or low management so top-level managers can focus on strategical planning
81
Cultural Change
refers to adjustments to the typical patterns of thinking and behaving
82
Technological Change
adjustment to existing, or implementation of new tech
83
Structural Change
- changes in overall formal relationships
- changes should be made to support broader objectives to centralize or decentralize operations, empower employees, or find greater efficiencies
84
Types of Changes
1. Structural
2. Technological
3. Cultural
85
POLC (BPR Steps)
plan: need for new strategy
organize: create new design
lead: decision making
control: requires change management skills
86
Business Processing Re-engineering (BPR)
a business management strategy that focuses on the analysis of workflows and processes to encourage full scale recreation of processes rather than optimization of sub processes
87
Change Management
all processes involved to prepare, support, and lead individual's groups, or organizations in making a change to a desired future state
88
5 Steps of Project Management
1. define the project
2. list all tasks associated with the project
3. estimate resources needed
4. identify constraints and considerations
5. develop implementation plans
89
Project Management
leading the work of a team to achieve goals within a defined time frame
90
2 Approaches that Help Early Stage Budget Process
- accounting for early uncertainty
| - creating stakeholder buy-in
91
Job vs Process Costing
- different jobs with different production requirements vs. single product produced over time
- accumulates cost by individual jobs vs. accumulates cost by process or department
92
Job Costing
- the total cost and revenue estimation by job or project
| - usually used when an organization can identify separate products or produce goods to meet a customer's specific need
93
Contingency Plan
defines alternate paths for the project in case various difficulties are encountered i.e errors in estimates and inevitable delays
94
Opportunity Cost
any time a decision is made to spend money on one course of action
95
Sunk Cost
any cost resulting from a missed opportunity that cannot be recovered
96
Cash-flow Forecast
"early warning system" that includes cash on hand, expected receipts, and expected disbursements
97
Optimal Cash Balance Determined by 4 Reasons for Holding Money
- transactions: holding $ to cover outstanding debts
- precautionary measures: maintaining $ for unexpected disbursements
- speculative measures: if an organization is planning to invest, it will hold a speculative amount to take advantage of opportunity
- financial measures: to acquire assets, an organization must accumulate and hold a certain amount of $
98
Managing Cash Flow Objectives
- accelerating cash inflows
- delaying cash outflows
- investing cash surplus'
- borrowing cash at best possible terms
- maintaining optimum level of cash
99
Sales Budget (master budget)
provides info for production budget to estimate demand for goods, and determining if realistic, attainable profit can be achieved based on demand
100
Deming Cycle
used to organize budgeting and implementation functions consisting of 4 phases:
1. planning
2. doing
3. checking
4. acting
101
Cash Disbursements
money allocated for purchases, wages, rent, interest, income, taxes, and cash dividends
102
Cash Reciepts
money flowing into a business including cash from sales, cash from debtors, short terms bank financing, AR financing, and inventory financing
103
Administrative Expenses
nonmanufacturing costs that include the costs of top administrative functions including accounting, data processing, admin salaries, and office supplies
104
Selling Expenses
costs incurred to obtain customer order and get the finished product in the customer's possession including ads, market research, commissions, and delivery fees
105
Direct Labor Costs
the labor costs of all employees actually working on materials to convert them into finished goods
106
Fixed Expenses
costs that remain the same no matter how many units are sold--the more sold, the more expense is distributed including rent, heat, insurance etc
107
Variable Costs
change in relation to a specific variable such as how many units are sold--the higher the forecast, the higher the selling expenses including labor, materials, and shipping costs
108
Overhead
the necessary expenses of running a business that cannot be directly linked to a good or service
109
Selling, Admin, and General (SG+A)
support costs such as salaries
110
Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)
all costs in material, labor, and overhead that are directly required for the production and or manufacturing of a good
111
Expenses
the overall costs of acquiring sales revenues divided into 2 catergories: COGS and SG+A
112
Opportunity Cost
the inability to pursue another alternative that offers a potential gain after making a choice
113
Just-In-Time Inventory System
inventory method designed to increase efficiency, decrease waste, and cut costs by only having the inventory on hand that is currently needed to fill orders
114
Production Budget
consists of costs inside the organization where the principle objective is to coordinate the production and sale of goods in terms of time and quantity
115
Operating Budget (master budget)
made up of the sales plan, production plan, material purchasing plan, labor and hiring , and administrative discretionary spending data
116
2 Components of the Master Budget
1. Operating Budget
| 2. Sales Budget
117
Pro forma
financial report based on hypothetical scenarios
118
Equity
value of a property after debt is deducted or the value of shares of stick issued by an organization
119
Liabilities
state of responsibility for something that an organization or individual owes
120
Asset
resources that have economic value and from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the enterprise--"things you own"
121
3 Dimensions for Assessing the Need for Change
1. scope of change
2. level of change
3. intentionality of change
122
1. Scope of Change (dimensional change)
refers to the degree to which the required change will disrupt current patterns: incremental, transformational, and strategic
123
Incremental Change
small refinements that do no challenge, but rather improve existing practices
124
2. Level of Change
the range of the systems that need to be changed i.e individual, group, and organizational
125
3. Intentionality of Change
refers to the degree to which the change is intentionally designed or purposefully implemented
126
Transformational Change
significant shifts in an organizational system that may disrupt some aspect of the organization, its processes, or structure
127
Strategic Change
change that is either incremental or transformational that helps align operations within its mission
128
Lean (standard incremental change practice)
focused on customer value
129
Six Sigma (standard incremental change practice)
method used to increase performance and decrease variation in process
130
5 External Considerations that can Motivate Change
1. economics: fluctuations in economic cycles
2. competition: mergers, new products, and bankruptcies
3. technology: adapting to new tech
4. globalization: catering to new demographics
5. legislation: law changes requiring environmental change
131
3 Internal Forces that can Motivate Change
1. management change: new executives
2. organizational restructuring: disrupting hierarchies
3. intrapreneurship: capitalizing on new ideas from inside the organization
132
Organizational Development (OD)
an organization that facilitates the learning of its members and continually transforms itself
133
Lewin's Change Model (3 Stage Model of Change)
1. unfreeze: identify the need for change by clearly defining the situation, create vision, and identify forces to drive the change
2. change: the internal movement taken in reaction to the change in the form of training
3. refreeze: reinforcing and maintaining change
134
Top-down Change
- relies on mechanistic assumptions about the nature of an organization
- small groups design processes on how to change
- relies on formal organization to drive the change
135
Bottom-up Change
relies on the belief that employees will be more invested in change if they play a part in the design process
136
Department Silos
when employees focus on the local optimization at the expense of the entire system
137
4 Elements of Change Management
1. recognizes changes
2. develops necessary adjustments
3. trains employees on appropriate changes
4. win the support of employees
138
Culture
the overarching mentality and expectations of behavior
139
3 Levels of Corporate Culture
1. fundamental assumptions about human behavior that are ingrained and difficult to identify
2. expressed values drawn from assumptions: appearing the form standards, and rules of an organization's philosophy
3. artifacts that are the outcome of the assumptions and values: appearing in the form of actions, and policies
140
Role Modeling
the process by which employees modify their own behaviors and beliefs to reflect those of the leader
141
Active Resistance
the most negative reaction to proposed change through sabotage and outspoken objectors
142
Passive Resistance
being disturbed by changes without voicing so
143
Perception
the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to represent and understand the environment
144
Factors that Determine Perceptual Organization
- figure-head
- perceptual grouping
- closure
- proximity
- similarity
- perceptual constancy
- perceptual context
145
Figure-head (perception factors)
stands out against background
146
Perceptual Grouping (perception factors)
perceptions brought together in pattern
147
Closure (perception factors)
tendency to try to create wholes out of perceived parts
148
Proximity (perception factors)
perceptions physically close together
149
Similarity (perception factors)
similarity between perceptions
150
Perceptual Constancy (perception factors)
the expectations of how perceptions were perceived in the past in present time
151
Perceptual Context (perception factors)
tendency to organize perceptions in relation to other perceptions
152
Bias
a pattern of deviant judgement usually in a way that is considered unfair or unjust
153
Bias Derivations
info processing shortcuts, mind's limited processing capacity, and emotional motivations
154
Heuristics
a problem solving approach that uses a more practical method, usually as an aid to learning
155
The Types of Perceptual Distortions
- confirmation bias
- self serving bias
- belief bias
- framing
- causality
156
Confirmation Bias (perceptual distortion)
human tendency to manipulate new info until they match their preconceived notions
157
Self Serving Bias (perceptual distortion)
the tendency to take credit for success while passing failure onto others
158
Belief Bias (perceptual distortion)
making decisions without all the facts
159
Framing (perceptual distortion)
ignoring relevant facts by narrowing down what is considered applicable to a given situation
160
Causality (perceptual distortion)
analyzing past events to predict future outcomes
161
Impression Management
a goal directed conscious or unconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of others by controlling information in social interactions
162
Impression Management Theory
states that any individual or organization must establish and maintain impressions that are congruent with the perceptions it wants to convey
163
Self-efficacy
describes whether a person is confident about being able to convey the intended impression successfully
164
The 5 Personality Traits
1. Openness: curiosity and open to new ideas
2. Conscientiousness: self disciplines and dependable
3. Extraversion: positive emotions and sociability
4. Agreeableness: showing compassion and cooperativeness
5. Neuroticism: vulnerability to unpleasant emotions
165
Human Capital
the economic value of a worker's experience and skills
166
2 Types of Forecasting
1. determining the quantity and quality of people needed to provide trained staffing for future opportunity
2. estimating the internal supply of people currently employed who have the skills to fill anticipated future jobs
167
Job Analysis
the process of collecting info about the specifics of each job in the manager's department or unit
168
Human Capital Management
a strategic process that ensures decisions and proposals are backed with data derived from research and analysis of organizational activities
169
Value-added Ratios
the time spent adding value to a good or service divided by the total time from the receipt of the order until it's delivery
170
Restructuring (internal hiring strategy)
reducing staff, or regrouping tasks to design better positions
171
Training (internal hiring strategy)
current employees taking on new roles
172
McClelland's Theory on the Motives for Learning
achievement, power, and affiliation
173
How Learning Takes Place
trial and error, self taught, observation, and adapting previous knowledge to new circumstances
174
Career Path Management
refers to the structured planning and active management of an employee's professional career
175
Short-term goal
usually specific and limited in scope and are easier to formulate--1 to 3 years
176
Intermediate goal
tend to be less specific, more open ended, and harder to formulate--3 to 5 years
177
Long-term goal
most fluid, lack knowledge and experience, and are difficult to formulate--over 20 years
178
Performance Appraisals (PA)
the process of assessing an employee's job performance and productivity conducted based on previously established criteria
179
Feedback model
start: what should employee improve?
stop: what should employee stop doing?
continue: what does employee excel in and keep doing?
180
SWOT Analysis
the process of looking at the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats when strategizing the best path to meet the organization's mission
181
Goals vs. Objectives
- not easily measured vs. specific and measurable
| - goal vs. a series of objectives to meet a goal
182
Career Development
A process developed to help people manage their career, learn new things, and take steps to improve
183
The 4 Steps in Employee Training Processes
1. orientation
2. in-house training
3. mentoring
4. external training
184
Types of Training Methods
- on the job coaching
- mentoring
- brown bag lunches
- job shadowing
- job swapping
- vestibule (conference/classroom)
- web based
185
Substantive (type of conflict)
deals with aspect of a team’s work or how they work together involving disagreements over policies and procedures
186
Perception Checking
a strategy to help monitor reactions and perceptions about people and communication
187
Kolb Learning Cycle
experience, reflection, conceptualization, reframe understanding, and experimenting with new perspective
188
Gibbs Reflective Cycle
Experience, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and action plan
189
Passive Listening
Listening to someone but don’t verify that you understand what is being said
190
3 Distinct Types of Messages
Primary: intentional content both verbal and nonverbal
Secondary: unintentional content both verbal and nonverbal
Auxiliary: intentional and unintentional Waze a primary message is communicated including voice inflection and gestures
191
Triple Bottom Line
How decision might affect an organization economically, socially, and environmentally
192
3 Models of Communication
1. Transmission: One-way process were center intentionally transmits message
2. Interaction: Two-way process when participants alternate positions at sender and receiver
3. Transaction: When communications generate social realities
193
8 Components of the Communication Process
```
source
message
channel
receiver
feedback
environment
context
noise
```
194
3. Primary Approaches to Conflict Resolution
integrative: Focusing on finding resolution that meets everyone’s needs
distributive: Finds ways to divide a fixed number of positive outcomes were one side comes out ahead of the other
mediating: Brings in third-party to facilitate resolution
195
Constructive Conflict Resolution
- an opportunity for change, growth, and understanding
| - shifting from judgements to curiosity
196
Thomas-Kilman Instrument Model (TKI)
1. competing: attempting to satisfy self needs
2. collaborative: both parties win conflict
3. avoiding: concerns of both parties are neglected
4. accommodating: greater concern for others
5. compromising: neither party wins or loses as an acceptable outcome
197
3 Primary Tactics to Manage Conflict
smoothing: minimizing differences by reducing emotional intensity
yielding: the choice to give and rather than engage in conflict
avoiding: choosing to ignore all but the most contentious disagreements
198
The seven most common decision making biases
irrational stubbornness: stick to the plan
zero-sum thinking: if you win, I lose
anchoring bias: original $3000, today $2000
framing: presentation matters
first impression bias: value on first presented data
shared negotiation: 2 parties in negotiation
overconfidence: I won once, I will win again
199
4 Types of Conflict Sources
personality differences: different values
informational deficiencies: not sharing critical info
role incompatibility: power conflicts
environmental stresses: setting unrealistically high goals
200
Intragroup (level of conflict)
between different individuals in the same group usually as a result of incompatible personalities
201
Intergroup (level of conflict)
between different groups as a result of competition for resources
202
Intrapersonal (levels of conflict)
within an individual that is psychological
203
Interpersonal (levels of conflict)
between individuals with different goals or personality—compromise for personal growth
204
Equity
value of a property after death is deducted or the value of shares of stock issued by an organization
205
Organizational Development (employee potential improvement)
focuses more on strategy, roles and processes that help both the organization and its people
206
Six Sigma (standard incremental change practice)
method used to increase performance and decrease variation in process
207
The 2 Types of Conflict
1. substantive or issue focused
| 2. affective or people focused
208
The 3 Managerial Role Categories
1. interpersonal: relational interaction and management
2. informational: gathering, analyzing, storing and disseminating info
3. decisions: the responsibility of making choices on behalf of the organization
209
Strategic Goals (3–5 years)
Long-term, having lasting consequences, are expensive, and include decisions involving tech usage, labor, and capacity to meet customer need
210
Soft Skills
refers to personality traits, social graces, and communication that are used to characterize relationships with others
211
The 4 Categories of Operational Strategy
1. developing a well-integrated company using corporate strategies
2. producing products and services with a focus on customer service
3. maximizing the organizations core competencies
4. creating a system to measure competitive priorities
212
Training and Development (employee potential improvement)
short term and focused on meeting objectives to more effectively do a job (training) and long-term and more goal oriented (development)
213
3 Dimensions for Assessing the Need for Change
1. scope for change
2. level for change
3. intentionality of change
214
3 Main Types of Conflict
1. simple
2. pseudo
3. ego
215
1. Simple (types of conflict)
stems from different standpoints where you understand each other but disagree
216
2. Pseudo (types of conflict)
misunderstanding due to miscommunication were one or both failed to convey with the other was trying to convey
217
3. Ego (types of conflict)
when discussion shipped from issues to personal attacks
218
Affective (type of conflict)
arises as a result of inherent differences between team members often based on different communication or personality styles
