Beowulf Flashcards
How did J.R.R. Tolkien change how Beowulf is appreciated?
treated the poet as a creative individual who imagine the story just as modern fantasy writers do today
mead
a fermented alcoholic beverage
in the halls @ meal times
mead-hall
a structure built by an Anglo-Saxon lord as the social center for his immediate communitym, esp. for his thanes & warriors
constructed primarily of wood → few survivied
scop
a story-teller, wandering minstrel/bard
lay
a narrative poem of popular origin
Finnsburg Lay, Sigemund’s lay, Heremond’s lay
ring and ring-giver
a principle form of currency was the gold arm ring or band, which had the advantage of being valuable, portable, & showy
hence the king is often referred to as a ring-giver
sword
the older, the better; family heirlooms w/ a long history favored by heroes & poets
elaborately decorated hilt often had ornamental ring attached & perhaps runic inscription for powers
very valuable = part of the warrior, w/ own identity, etc.
fen
low land covered wholly or partially w/ shallow water, or subject to frequent inundations
a tract of such land, a marsh, sometimes a bog
mere
a sheet of standing water
a lake, pond
ogres and trolls
a member of a race of humanoid beings, fierce & cruel monsters, that eat human flesh
often dwell underground or live in/near water
sometimes: shy, cowardly, “undead”
thane
a warrior who has sworn his loyalty to a lord
in return for a gift of weaponry & provisions of food & drink @ the mead-hall, vows to fight for his lord & die in his service; avenges lord’s death
eorl, thane, ceorl
liege and liege-lord
liege - party in oath of allegiance to smoeone; sometimes specifically reserved for a “privileged” allegiance, to take precedence in case of conflictin allegieances
liege-lord - any person/entity to which one has pledged allegiance
retainer
a person being part of the retinue (suite, train) of a dignitary, etc. either performing personal services such as man servant, pageboy, bodyguard, or occasionally minstrel
wyrd
~ fate
refers to the past/that which has become; how past actions continually affect & condition the future
the interconnected nature of all actions, & how they influence each other
some relation to predestination except constantly creating our own Wyrd through how we respond to present situations karma
Cain
Cain & Abel = 1st & 2nd sons of Adam & Eve born after the Fall of Man
Cain commits 1st murder by killing Abel after rejected by God
Cain cursed to wander the earth forever friendless & homeless & never killed
chain-mail
a type of armor that consists of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh
sometimes punctured by a spear/shorn by the blow from heavy axe/sword & flexibility means wearer somewhat vulnerable to blunt weapons; nevertheless, effective & popular
refers to the armor material, not the garment made from it
hauberk
a shirt made from mail
byrnie
a knee-length shirt from armor material
haubergeon
waist-length shirt made from mail
chausses
mail leggings
coif
mail hoods
mitons
mail mittens
camail
aventail
mail collar hanging from helmet
pixane
standard
mail collar strapped around neck
pyre
a structure, such as a mound of wood, for burning a body as part of a funeral rite
early form of cremation
sometimes on ship
Valhalla
“hall of the slain” Norse
Odin’s hall, home for those slain gloriously in battle (Einherjar)
important concept in background
called the shining citadel in Beowulf
peace-weaver
kenning
men were war-makers
a woman of nobility had few roles → many young girls found themselves bound across the region in the capacity of a peace-offering b/w clans
woman respected & honored for her sacrifice
Wealhtheow successful, Hildeburn failure, Hygd successful, Freawaru failure
beot
“vow” “boast”
a ritualized boast/vow made publicly by warriors as thanes before the lord of the mead-hall generally the night before a military engagement
often accompanied by stories of his past glorious deeds
valued behavior → determination & character
fame/shame culture
code of martial honor
“death before dishonor”
rewards those who display bravery by engaging in risk-taking behavior to enhance one’s reputation, facing certain death in preference to accusations of cowardice, and displaying loyalty to one’s king in the face of adversity
fame = most valuable reward since it alone will exist after death
fear of shame > fear of death
wergild
a reparation payment usually demanded of a person guilty of homicide or other wrongful death, altho could be demanded in other cases of serious crime
set a fixed monetary value on the life (sometimes body parts) of each man @ each rank of society
important legal mechanism; other common form = blood revenge
payment made to family/clan
“man price”
if not payed, blood feud
epic
a long narrative opem that celebrates the deeds of an heroic figure
elevated style w/ episodic structure
often opens in media res
primary or secondary
primary epic
folk epics i.e., transmitted orally in pre-literate cultures
secondary epic
literary epics, i.e., versions actually written dwn rather than chanted/sung
often retain elements of oral-formulaic transmission (staggered intervals in which poet summarizes earlier events, standardized epithets, phrases)
qualities of an epic hero
- unusual background - orphaned, great tragedy in youth
- special power/ability that sets him/her above ordinary humans
- goes on quest - generally involves the triumph of good over evil
- literally/figuratively descends into the underworld - often initiates change in hero
- role model who embodies the values of his/her society
epithet
short, poetic nickname
adjective/adjectival phrase attached to normal name
allows poet to extend line by a few syllables
Homeric epithet
in classical lit
often compounds of 2 words “fleet-footed Achilles” “cow-eyed Hera”
in other cases, phrase “Odysseus the man-of-many-wiles”
historical epithet
a descriptive phrase attached to a ruler’s name
King Alfred the Great
in media res
“in the middle of things”
later in narrative, hero will recount verbally to others what events took place earlier
usually used to heighten dramatic tension/create sense of mystery
opp. of ab ovo (beginning
foil
a character/situation that thru strong contrast underscores/enhances the distinctive traits of another character/situation
1st, must be a pt of comparison before the strong contrast can be made
Anglo-Saxon poetry
alliterative verse
4 accented syllables per line, w/ a caesura sep-ing the 1st two accented syllables from the last 2
frequent alliteration & wordy play, but not a set rhyme scheme
rhythm
the pattern of stressed & unstressed syllables in verse or prose
diff lines of verse can have the same meter but a diff rhythm. thus 2 lines of alliterative verse in Middle English poetry might have the same metrical pattern of 4 stressed syllables, but rhythm might differ by having a greater/lesser # of unstressed syllables intervening b/w the stressed syllables
caesura
caesurae
a pause abt the middle of a metrical line
can be quite violent or almost inaudible
alliteration
poets often use this to audibly represent the action that’s taking place
emphasis
head rhyme
alliteration in which 1st letters of words r the same
consonance
if alliteration also involves changes in the intervening vowels b/w repeated consonants
compounding
taking 2 common words & sticking them together to create a brand new concept
kenning
a form of compounding in Anglo-Saxon poetry
creates a new compound word/phrase to describe an obj/activity
uses mixed imagery to describe the prop’s of the obj in indirect, imaginative, or enigmatic ways
riddle, mini poem
may involve conjoining 2 types of dissimilar imagery: extended metaphor, or mixed metaphor
meiosis
an understatement
litotes
a type of meiosis in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary
paradox
a statement that while seemingly contradictory or absurd may actually be well-founded or true
Ex: “Without laws, we can have no freedom.”
black humor
use of the morbid & absurd for darkly comic purposes
motif
recurring obj, concept, or structure in a work of lit
may also be 2 contrasting elements e.g., good & evil
in Beowulf, fratricide
4 qualities of Anglo-Saxon poetry
- rhythm (2 beats, pause, 2 beats)
- no rhyme
- 4 stressed, 5-6 unstressed
- stressed & important syllables in lines often alliterated
appositive
a noun/noun phrase set beside another noun/PN to explain or identify it
in Beowulf, the original noun often deleted
diff’s among appos’s epithets, & kennings
appos - noun/noun phrase
kennings - nouns put together; metaphor, not as literal; fully describe something Ex: whale-road
epithet - adj/adj phrase
epithets - word as adj’s
kennings & [appositives?] - work as nouns
kennings are a subset of appos’s
kenning tips
write EVERYTHING
give literal def, comparison/parallels, also include verb
Dane
- founder of the tribe of the Spear-Danes
- his funeral one of the 1st scenes
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Shield Sheafson
Dane
- one of the kings of the Spear-Danes
- grandson of Shield Sheafson
- father of Heorogar, Hrothgar, Halga, & a daughter who marries Onela the Swede
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Halfdane
Dane
- Halfdane’s son, sibling of Hrothgar
Heorogar
Dane
- king of the Spear-Danes when Beowulf arrives
- paid $ to the Wulfings to resolve blood feud they had w/ Ecgtheow → Beowulf owes debt
- old king, no longer able to defend his ppl against Grendel
- also no ready successor; sons too young
- problem for Danes
- instead ring-gives → buys loyalty
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Hrothgar
Dane
- Halfdane’s son, sibling of Hrothgar
Halga
Swede
- son of Ongentheow
- king of the Swedes (rival tribe to the Geats)
- to prevent blood feuds, marries Danish princess (daughter of Halfdane)
- this attempt @ peace-weaving doomed to failure
- prowess in battle & strength as king
Onela
Dane
“Heorot” = hart (male deer/stag) = heart; deer also prey hunted by predators - foreshadow to Grendel’s attacks
Hrothgar’s lavish, wealthy hall for feasts, sleeping, audiences
represents the brotherhood & unity of the warriors; symbol of power
Heorot Hall
descendant of Biblical Cain - connected w/ not only a larger religious/supernatural scheme of evil, but also fratricide
man-eating demon attacking Heorot Hall
can’t be harmed by any blade
Grendel
king of the Geats
Beowulf’s lord & foster-brother & uncle
good-hearted & strong who dies in battle
Hygelac
Geat
Beowulf’s father
once in blood-feud w/ the Wulfings cuz killed Heatholaf; sought refuge w/ Hrothgar → pledged allegiance to Hrothgar
Ecgtheow
Dane
Hrothgar’s herald
renowned warrior
known for wisdom
Wulfgar
Geat
previous king of Geats
father of Hygelac, Herebeald, Haethcyn, & a daughter
foster-father of great-nephew Beowulf
dies of grief after Haethcyn accidently kills Hearebeald
Hrethel
Dane
challenges Beowulf’s boasts; tells swimming story w/ Breca; shut down
has killed his kin
but clever & generous; lends Beowulf famous sword Hrunting
“to lack faith”
Unferth
Geat
childhood friend of Beowulf’s
swimming contest in open sea with full armor & swords to defend against sea monsters
Unferth: Beowulf lost; Beowulf: shoulder-to-shoulder with swimming but he himself also killed 9 monsters
Breca
Dane
Queen of the Spear-Danes, wife of Hrothgar, mistress of Heorot Hall
important duty: ceremonial carrying of mead goblet around hall to weave peace b/w Geats & Danes
later pleads w/ Beowulf not to take throne from Hrethric & Hrothmund after Hrothgar’s death
Wealhtheow
Dane
from Norse mythology, famous for slaying a dragon
foreshadows Beowulf’s encounter w/ dragon
Sigemund
Dane
Sigemund’s nephew
Fitela
Dane
evil king, contrasted w/ Beowulf
Heremod
Dane
Hrothgar’s nephew
betrays & usurps cousin, Hethric, rightful heir to Danish throne
treachery contrasts w/ Beowulf’s loyalty to Hygelac in helping his son to the throne
Hrothulf
Frisian king
married Hildeburh, Danish princess
minstrel @ Hrothgar’s court sings of Finn’s war w/ the Danes, who eventually kill him in his own hall
Finn
Danish king
brother of Hengest & Hildeburh
slain by Finn’s men, given Germanic funeral
Hnaef
Frisian queen
Finn’s wife, widow
Hildeburh
Dane
Hnaef’s brother
leads the Danes after Hnaef is slain
Hengest
Danes
sons of Hrothgar & Wealhtheow
young princes, neither yet ready to succeed their father; makes their mother worry abt Beowulf usurping
Hrethric and Hrothmund
Cain’s clan
wants to avenge son’s death
manages to kill one man, but alarmed by strength & prowess of the Geatish warriors & retreats to lair
Beowulf follows & beheads
Grendel’s mother
Dane
old warrior & good friend of Hrothgar
killed & beheaded by Grendel’s mother when avenging; Hrothgar grieves
Aeschere
Dane
Unferth’s ancient sword which he lends to Beowulf
used against Grendel’s mother
Hrunting
queen of the Geats
Hygelac’s wife
Hygd
Offa’s queen
wicked queen of legend who punishes anyone who looks at her the wrong way
contrasts w/ Hygd’s gentle & reasonable behavior
Modthryth
hero king
Hemming’s kinsman
Offa
Dane
daughter of Hrothgar & Wealhtheow
married to Ingeld the Heathobard, an attempt to weave peace
Freawaru
King of the Heatho-Bards
offered hand of Freawaru as peace-settlement from Hrothgar
Ingeld
Geat
came w/ Beowulf to Denmark
1st victim of Grendel during 1st night @ Heorot
no remains
Hondscio
Geat
only son of Hygelac & Hygd
killed in battle, leaving cousin Beowulf to become Geat king
Heardred
opposite of a good king cuz guards treasure but does nothing w/ it - malice, destruction, greed: dark side of kingship
guarding ancient hoard
the dragon
king of the Swedes
father of Onela
killed in battle by Geat Eofor
altho Eofor avenging brother Wulf, still killed Swedish king - feud w/ Geats
Ongentheow
Geat
son of King Hrethel & brother of Hygelac
accidentally killed by brother Haethcyn
Herebeald
Geat
son of King Hrethel, brother of Hygelac
accidentally killed brother Herebeald
Haethcyn
Geat
Ongentheow killed Wulf; Eofor killed Ongentheow → Swedes vs. Geats
sharply contrast w/ fratricidal Herebeald & Haethcyn
Eofor
Geat
w/ Beowulf when fighting dragon
when all others abandon him, he remains
gives Beowulf kill strike
given golden necklace/torque by Beowulf when dying
courage & loyalty
Wiglaf
Geat
given to Beowulf by Hygelac after returning home
“nailer”
snaps when hits dragon; failure = time for new era/king
Naegling
Geat
Eofor’s brother; avenged
Wulf
adj.
threatening, menacing
foreshadowing evil/tragic developments
minatory
v.
to inspire or influence thoroughly
to permeate or saturate
to stain or dye deeply
to spread or diffuse thru
imbue
the quality of being bright and radiant
effulgence
of, relating to, or suggestive of dreams
oneiric
adj.
resembling, characteristic of, or appropriate to an elegy
expressing sorrow often for something or someone past
elegiac
n.
a loud, harsh, or strident noise
the act of making a noisy disturbance
v.
to make a loud noise
to make a resonant sound, like artillery
to instill (into a person) by constant repetition
din
n.
a formal ecclesiastical ban, curse, or excommunication
a vehement denunciation; a curse
one that is cursed or damned
anathema
n.
comfort in time of grief or anxiety
v.
to comfort or cheer in time of grief or affliction
to allay; to soothe
solace
n.
an overwhelming defeat
a disorderly crowd of ppl
v.
to defeat disastrously
to cause to flee
to dig with the snout
rout
adj.
softly bright or radiant
light & brilliant
playing lightly on or over a surface
lambent
n.
a social outcast
pariah
adj.
deadly or sinister
baneful
v.
to oppose, esp. by contradiction
to declare false
gainsay
n.
a predatory attack; a raid
damage or loss
depredation
adj.
so great in size, force, or extent as to elicity awe
of momentous/ominous significance
far beyond what is usual in magnitude or degree
prodigious
adj.
dwelling in or under the earth; pertaining to underworld
a Greek term linked to gods/spirits of the underworld that refers to the interior of the earth
evokes @ once abundance & the grave
chthonic
n.
a cheerful or eager readiness in willingness, often manifested by brisk, lively action, or promptness in response
speed/quickness
alacrity
n.
the time of day immediately following sunset
gloaming
