Benson History Flashcards
Etruscan Necropolis at Cerveteri
Also: the only standing Etruscan Monument is the Etruscan arch at Perugia c. 310 BCE
Clay models/urn c. 9c BCE
We learned about the Etruscan temple through finds like these and Vitruvius’s writings. The temples had deep porches, were fronta and had three front cellas
The Romans
The Romans Emerbed around 500 BCE. The legendary city having been founded by the twins Romulus and Remus in 753 BCE on the seven hills above the tiber.
They loved to consume art and architecture from greece, italy and anatolia.
Barrel vaults are a row of arches forming a “tunnel like structure.”
Groin vaults are the instersection of two barrel vaults
Nimes, Pont-Du-Gard Aqueduct, 20-16 BCE.
This is an early imperial work that manifests not only roman engineering skill but the technology to conquer nature.
Nimes, so called “Temple of Diana” (library) c80 BCE or 2nd c CE
Roman Concrete wall Construction
Revestimentos Romanos
a) Opus Incertum
b) Opus Reticulatum
c) Opus testaceum
The Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste (Palestrina) c. 80 BCE
Excellent example of Roman Architecture.
Dramatic Transformation of natural site and strong axis of symmetry.
The Citadel at Pergamon c. 2nd c BCE
Pseudo Peripteral
Roman Temples in the Republican and Imperial Period were often a fusion of Etruscan and Greek Temple Typologies. Recangular temples were frontal, built on a high platform and approached on axis by a set of stiars.
Pseudo Peripteral: had free standing columns on the porch that continued as engaged colums in the cella walls, rather than as a peristyle.
Temple of Portunus, Forum Boarium, Rome, c 2nd to 1st c BCE
Tetrastyle Ionic temple with a deep porch and high podium. Facing on surfaces is a rough travertine marble. but the shafts and columns are tufa. Podium core is concrete
Maison Caree Nimes France, c. 16 CE (Temple of Gaius Julius and Lucius Caesar)
Built at previous date and the remodeled by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. c 2-4/5 CE.
Part of the forum. Deep porch. Single cella
Temple of Hercules Victor, Forum Boarium, 2nd c BCE, Rebuilt 2nd c CE
Compared to the Tholos at Epidarus, 4th c BCE. Intertal corinthian columns and external colonade.
Constructed for the Cult of Hercules the Victor in 2nd c BCE of pantelic marble.
Timgad, c. 100 CE in North Africa (Algeria)
colonial city based on the Roman military camp organization known as Castrum.
Note the similarity to the plan of Chang’an 6th c CE
Forum Ramanum
Civic center of Rome from early republic times on. Almost exactly in the center is the circular temple of Vesta.
Most importatnly the Basilica Amelia existed here
Basilica Amelia 14 BCE
used for legal purposes, housing courts and tribunals as well as serving as a place for attorneys and clients to meet. Often housed shops, banking and governmental offices.
Re built by Augustas after an earlier basilica was destroyed by fire. The basilica was fronted by the roman arch order.
Triumphal Arch of Titus. Celebrating the roman victory over the jewish zealots. The rebellion began aorund 66 CE and was put down by Titus in 72 CE.
“Titus vinvit, titus regnat, titus imperat!” (Titus conquers, Titus reigns, Titus rules as emperor)
The son Domition built the arch of titus before the year 85 CE as a memorial. (Titus died 81 CE)
The inner faces contain two reliefs
1) the roman army sacking the temple in Jerusalem
2) the triumphant Titus driving a quadriga, accompanied by goddess Victoria. (nike figure)
(arch of titus)
The imperial Forua
Often with the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Empire, the emperors would build a new fora. Not to replace the origional Forum Romanum, but to expand the typology
The Temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum Augustum, dedicated in 2 BCE: reconstruction drawing, fragments and plan.
Forum and Markets of Trajan, dedicated 113.
Built by Trajan and financed by the spoils of the Dacian war.
The largest building shown is the Basilica Ulpia
Basilica ulpia. dedicated 113 CE
The column of Trajan and its reliefs
The markets of Trajan.
The Via Biberatica and details showing brick faced concrete construction, travertine moldings on doorways and windows, and the use of flat arches and relieving arches.
The Market Hall in the Via Biberatica
The Pantheon, c118-c128
Interior space took on a new meaning and presence as the essence of the building. The interior globe was 142’ in diameter and height.
Corinthian order. Doubled trianglar form due to the sinking of ships carrying origional columns. The current ones were taken and repurposed for the pantheon
New temple typology
Theatre of Marcellus 13-11 BCE
The theatre is covered in a roman arch order. The lower order is tuscan, (simplified doric) then the second order is ionic. and the third level was probably an attic story without an engaged order.
Note the similarity to the Epidarus in Rome
Radial, Raking and Groin Vaults
(in roman theatres)
Radiar run parallel to the perimeter of the structure.
Raking run perpendicular to the radial barrel. Supports tiers of seats and creat passage ways of ingress and egress.
Where they intersect they form groin vaults
Flavian ampitheatre (Colosseum) 77/72-80 CE)
Gladitorial combat began in the 3rd c BCE as a form of human sacrifice in honor of the dead. Initated in 264 BCE, it was consciously borrowed from the etruscans by the romans.
Bustiarii ‘funeral men’ Combat became the entertaiment for prestiege and spectacle.
89 BCE first recorded stone arena built in pompeii
Revetment (veneer) held in place with metal clips
Classes of Gladiators
Hiplomachi: giants who used armor and brute strength
Thracians: lighter armored fighters known for agility and speed
Retiarii: net fighters who wore nor armor and used a trident
andabati: mounted fighters and charioteers
The baths of Caracalla, 212-216 CE
Larges of 952 public baths in Rome.
Symmetrical organization of bi-axial layout. for bathing exercizing and dressing
Libraries, lecture halls, gymnasia and game rooms also existed within the baths
Why is the city Ostia important?
The port city of rome before the early imperial period. The city center had been formed in 4th century BCE as a military emcampment called a castrum.
Walled square or rectangle divided into 4 equal quadrants by an east west road (decumanus) and a north south road (cardo)
The Augustan theater of the 1st c BCE (and later) with its Piazzale of the Corporations was unusual in its creation of a large colonnade-enclosed space behind the scene building.
The small spaces at the outer edges of the colonnade seem to have been offices of various commercial enterprises involved with the business of the port city.
What does Isula mean?
Horrea Epagathiana, c. 145-50 CE
Construction exploded on Ostia. New harbor facilities in rome made bulidings less and less expensive.
They inherited the typology of courtyards surrounded by a colonade but increasingly substituted an arcade for columns that faced the street front. Brick was a favored finish material.
insula: Block of apartments
Pompeii, Forum 6th c BCE
Oldest nucleus of pompeii. Contains temples basilica, triumphal arches, governmental offices, markets, commercial facilites
Pompeii, Temple of Apollo, 2nd c BCE rebuilt after earthquake damage 62 CE
Corinthian order within a precinct of doric colonades. Ajacent to the forum. the longitudinal axis of the two areas being parallel.
Temple of Jupiter, Capitolium, or temple of the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva) mid 2nd c BCE
Rebuilt at the norht end of the forum, after the temple of apollo was renovated.
Triumphal Arch of Nero in the NE corner of the Forum. Pompeii
Although not as large as the arches in the Forum Romanum, it still has the typical features of a barrel-vaulted passageway and niches that were meant to hold sculpture. It probably also had an attic story and inscriptions.
Forum Baths, Pompeii, c 80 BCE
Smaller and less grandoise than the lavis imperial baths would be built later. But the baths exemplify the layout and similar facilites with bi axial symmetry.
Forum Baths, Pompeii, c 80 BCE
Mens Caldarium and Mens tepidarium
Ampitheatre Pompeii c 80 BCE
Easternmost corner of the city oldest surviving ampitheatre. Partially vaulted and on a hill
Seating supported by the vaulted sub-structure
Wall painting of a riot that broke out during a match between Pompeii and Nuceria in 59 CE.
The event began with a trivial incident. The was much injury and loss of life. Emperor Nero arred Pompeii from holding gladitorial events for a period of ten years.
The Pompeiian House
Pompeiian houses were primarily for the wealthy to vacation in a warm climate. The oldest house of which is 300 BCE.
The general layout was a series of rooms grouped about a courtyard or atrium in a loosely symmetrical arrangement. The atrium caught rainwater and was considered the pricnipal room.
The principal room was the tablinium wich was open fronted or screened by curtain. It was private nucleus of the house in contrast to the atrium.
flanked by alae.
Cubiculum: bedroom Triclinium: dining room
House of the vettii, Pompeii 1st c BCE
Walls contained applied al fresco. Watercolor applied to wet plaster
Stucco Relief border
house of the Menander, Late 1st c BCE Pompeii
named for the Poet Menander, by archeologists
Wall paintings from a cubiculum in Boscoreale, c50 BCE
Right: describes a sacred precinct probably belonging to the divinity of DIana-Lucina. Goddess of the mon and of birth and of the three bodied ruler of the night Hectate.
The lef tis of a cityscape and is found in the same cubiculum.
Villa of Mysteries 1st c BCE Pompeii
The house is the location of one of the most important series of wall paintings of europe. Cult of the god Bacchus
illusionistic Space, a ledge is portrayed that does not exist. One that is wide enough so that one may walk upon it. its part of the real setting
Pompeii was destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 62 CE. The ash rained down and annihilated the population.
Baths of Diocletian, c298-305/6
This huge building was built outside the very corner of rome and is based on the general layout of the baths of caracalla.
There is now a clearly defined east west axis through the lentgh of the building that connects the two palaestrae as anchors.
part of the enormous baths were remodeled. (frigidarium.) as the church of sta. maria delgi angeli e dei martini designed by Michelangelo done in 1563-64
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine 307-12 and later
Built by Maxentius and left unfinished by his death. Origionally based upon a long axis, constantine unertook and completed the structure, added an entrance and an apse on the secondary or short axis.
it was here that the colossal statue of constantine was displayed.
(basilica of Maxentius and Constantine)
Colossal portrait of Constantine the Great that was displayed in his Basilica in Rome around the year 315
Constantine is portrayed as completely detached with large stylized eyes.
Verism
Exact likenesses that can convey facial expressions down family lines
Although imperial portraiture tended somewhat more toward the idealism of Greek sculpture, it nevertheless was still veristic. The portrait of Julius Caesar is remarkably individualized; yet the portrait of his successor Augustus is only a little more idealized, in keeping with the pose of an orator wearing military armor.
However, all portraiture evolved—both imperial and patrician—to reflect the changing cultural patterns of the Roman Empire
Julius Caesar, 1st c BCE
Augustus of Prima Porta,
late 1st c BCE
Caracalla, 211-217 CE
Caracalla, 211-217 CE
Portraits of Caracalla portray him as a man of intense personality. That can be seen here as he suddenly turns his head to focus his attention on a person or situation that has caught his notice. Carinus, by contrast, seems to be detached from his immediate environment, gazing off into the distance, no longer an integral part of the world about him. He is carved with much less precise depiction of hair and beard and with less concern for topographical verism. The kind of portraiture represented by Carinus dominates the later 3rd and 4th centuries.
The arch of Constantine. 312-315
Commemorates the emperor Constantines victory over maxentius in the battle of the milvian bridge in 312 CE.
Some of it was taken from earlier monuments built by trajan, hadrian, marcus aurelius. (the “good” emperor)
Disentrgation of the classical form
- Plastic modeling
- ideal proportioning
- contrappostal stance
- expression of calm, relaxation and balance
- individual figures are separated as organic beauitful wholes
- smooth rhythmic relationships
3rd century disintigration. Constantine. Running drill
- The symmetrical design shows clearly the status of the emperor, full-face, with all others oriented to him. The only other frontal figures are those representing the statues of Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian at the corners of the rostrum.
- An abstract order is imposed upon the world of appearances in order to explain complicated relationships and ceremonies.
- There is no suggestion that the scene extends beyond the pictorial area.
- The scene completely fills the area it occupies.
4th century relief
Constantines conversion to christianity
312: Constantine sees vision of the battle at milvian bridge. “in hoc signo vinces” (in his sign you shall conquer)
313: Constantine proclaims christianity equal
323: Constantine moves capitol to byzantium and calls it constantinople. Completed by 330.
strong strategic and economic stronghold.
Also most thoroughly christian
325: Constantine declares christianity the official state religion.
Reasons for picking a Basilica to be official building of the religion
space requirements
professional directionalism
strong imperial associations
clear structural precedents and universal understanding constructionally
neutral symbolism of legal authority state aurthority and imperial hierarchy
incorporation into civic centers everywhere
suitability for new urban functions for what was already an urban religion
First christian basilica constructed was the Basilica of St. Peters in the Vatican in Rome. (san pietro in vaticano) 321-2 CE)
“Old St. peters” Basilica of S. Pietro in Vaticano (St. Peter’s in the Vatican), 321-2 CE: plan and cross-section
The first Christian basilica transforms the conventional Roman legal basilica into a new building type with a cross-axial hall called the transept between the aisles and the apse. This is a five-aisled basilica, meaning that it has a central aisle or nave, flanked by two aisles on both sides.
interior of S Pietro in Vaticano and Basilica of SM Maggiore 5th c
In both, processional axis leads to a triumphal arch that enframes the altar and the apse in which the altar sits. The nave is lit by clerestory windows and the walls are carried by the colonnades that separate the nave from the side aisles.
Symbolism of S. Pietro in Vaticano and the Early Christian Basilica
The Early Christian basilica is a great complex of signs. We have seen that in the sculpture of the early 4th century, symbolic and schematic relationships begin to play an extremely central role. In the Early Christian basilica, the same things takes place.
The building can be read as a city within a city: the new Jerusalem of the distant future after the Last Judgment, existing timelessly within the temporal city of Rome. The nave can be seen as representing a street or avenue leading to a triumphal arch, through which liturgical processions pass, and beyond which the victory of the resurrection of Christ could be celebrated in the liturgy at the altar. The altar stands before the throne of justice in the apse (the throne of the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, the apostle of Christ, to whom Christ said “On this rock I will build my church.”).
The abstract relationships of theology, symbol, liturgical practice, processions, and sacramental celebrations form the content contained within the shell of the building, a content rarely experienced before this in a spiritual setting.
Basilica of Santa Sabina, 422-32
This is a smaller three-aisled basilica with many of the features of the larger S. Pietro in Vaticano. The very austere exterior exhibits a simple but strong geometry in its form.
CARVED WOODEN DOORS OF STA SABINA
the doorway formt he narthex (the vestibule at the entrance of the church) is surrounded by classicizing moldings in stone. The door istelf is created out of a series of hinged wood panels all of which are biblical scenes from the old and new testament
Sant Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, +549
Classe was the port city of Ravenna and an important urban center in the 6th century.
Attached Campanile. One or more sacristies, a crypt, and the narthex at the entrance. and a babtistry
Spoila columns: taken from other buildings and re used here.
tesserae: mosaics of patterns or images made up of small pieces of stone or glass.
During the 4th century another christian typology evolved. The centralized building. like the church of Sta. Constanza c(330-350). Based on a circle or regular polygon such as an octagon.
Organized around central vertical entrance.
Used for 1) burial site 2) Martyrium 3) babtistry
The Hagia Sophia, Contantinople, 532-537, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus
The Hagia Sophia was the major building effort of Justinian. A basilica had been built on this site in 360. It was remodeled in 415 and then burned in the Nika riots of 532. The Nika riots, or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532.
The ancient Roman and Byzantine Empires had well developed associations of sports fans, especially for chariot racing, a popular diversion for the poor. There were four major factions of chariot racing fans, signified by the color of the uniform of their favorite racing team. There were the Blues, the Reds, the Greens, and the Whites. By the Byzantine era, the only teams with any influence were the Blues and the Greens.
The teams had aspects of street gangs and political parties, grouping people by social class and religion. The emperors tended to support one faction over the other; Justinian I was, until the riots, a supporter of the Blues.
In 531, some members of the Blues and Greens had been arrested for murder, but had survived their hanging sentences. Justinian commuted their sentences to imprisonment, but the Blues and Greens demanded that they be pardoned entirely. Justinian ignored them, so on January 11, 532, they broke into the prison and set fire to parts of Constantinople, using the cheer nika (“victory”) as a rallying cry.
Some of the Senators saw this an an opportunity to overthrow Justinian, as they were opposed to his new taxes and lack of support for the nobility in general. The rioters, now armed and probably controlled by their allies in the Senate, also demanded that Justinian dismiss the prefect John the Cappadocian, who was responsible for tax collecting, and the quaestor Tribonian, who was responsible for rewriting the legal code.
They then declared a new emperor, Hypatius, who was a nephew of Emperor Anastasius I. Justinian considered fleeing, but Theodora convinced him to stay in the city. Justinian had his generals Belisarius and Narses suppress the revolt on January 18, which they did with much bloodshed by trapping the rebels in the Hippodrome. About thirty thousand rioters were reportedly killed. Justinian also had Hypatius executed and exiled the Senators who had supported the riot.
The Hagia Sophia was built in a startling 5 years—from 532 to 537—except for furnishings. Legend has it that at the consecration, Justinian proclaimed, “Solomon, I have vanquished thee!” This reference to the storied temple built for the Jews in the city of Jerusalem also has an iconographic interpretation. The words hagia sophia in Greek mean “divine wisdom.” Solomon was known as the wisest of men and as a wise king. Jesus descended from Solomon through his mother, the Virgin Mary, who was sometimes known as the “throne of wisdom” (Latin: sedes sapientiae). The basilica is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, who holds Divine Wisdom, i.e. the child Jesus, in her lap, thus becoming his throne.
Constantinople (istanbul) Church of st sergius and bacchus 527-536 CE
Constructed of brick and stone masonry as is the hagia sophia. octagonal dome four exedrae on the diagonal apsidal extension
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425-430
One of the oldest early christian buildings in Ravenna Constructed for the wife of Constantius III
Cruciform plan.
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425-430
The principal figure in the mosaics is the Roman Deacon St. Lawrence, who was martyred by being burned on a grill. He is pictured here with the symbol of his martyrdom (the grill) and with the symbol of his spiritual victory (a gold cross carried on his shoulder). Next to the grill is a library containing the four books of the Gospels.
The figure of the Hellenistic Jew Saul of Tarsus who became St. Paul. He called himself the “Apostle to the Gentiles” after his dramatic conversion to Christianity due to an event on the road from Palestine to Damascus.
The figures in the corners of the vault are the four beasts of the Apocalypse: a winged man, winged lion, winged bull, and an eagle. These four figures are associated with the writers of the four gospels of the Christian New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
Baptistry of the Orthodox 451-7
Converted from old roman bath house undr bishop ursus around 400 AD. And finished by Bishop neone 451-75
Mosiaic added to the dome in 5th century.
The plan is an octagon with low apsidal projections on four sides. The exterior is simple brick construction, but the dome is a very thin construction built of clay tubes.
aedicule or aedicular motif
The church of san vitale (chapel of the exarch) ravenna Italy consecrated 547
This church is a reflection of the art of Constantinople. Undoubtedly Byzantine artisans and craftsmen were sent from the capital to build it in the Justianiac style and to reflect the power and taste of the Emperor to his subjects in Italy.
Octagonal plan, similar space expanding quality as hagia sophia. Subtle directionalism
This duality remains an interesting historic condition in early medieval architecture. Roman and classical sources mix with a continuing interest in and fascination with Byzantine architecture on the part of western European architects and patrons for years afterwards.
Phocis, Monestary of Hosios Lukas with the two churches: the church of Theokos (mother god) 959-963 and the church of st luke of stiris, 1020
The Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God) is the older church of the two and is simpler and more austere than the newer church. Note the crossing tower with its stone ornament around the windows. On the inside, the form and structure are undecorated, revealing their tectonic qualities.
Interior of the Katholikon (Cathedral) of St. Luke of Stiris, c.1020, View from W to E (darker photo)
Church of the Raising of Lazarus, Muromansky Monastery, now at Kizhi Island, c. 1391
This is considered the oldest surviving log building in Russia. The simple form of the tripartite interior is expressed directly in the external form.
The log construction of the nave and chancel are complemented by a plank construction using wooden uprights for the vestibule. The small dome over the nave introduces us to the enigma of the onion dome. No one knows for sure how or where these forms originated.
Church of the Nativity of the Virgin,
Village of Peredki (now at Novgorod), 1593
This wooden church has a Greek cross plan (four equal arms) with an octagonal tower covered by a shatyor or tent roof. A porch that wraps around the building is supported on pomochi or stacked cantilevers.
The apparently simple technology of the wood construction is actually very sophisticated in its combination of several woods with various characteristics. The careful crafting of joints and other details prevents water pooling and leaking.
Shatyor
interlocking logs of diminishing lengths.
Church of the Transfiguration with the church of the intercession. (left) Kizhi Island 1714
This church, commissioned by the Russian Czar Peter the Great, is a tour-de-force of wooden construction. It expands its shatyor with an array of bochki (reverse curve gables) that are surmounted by 22 small domes. The pyramidal composition resembles a sacred summit or magic mountain.
Aspen shingles, weathered to resemble titanium
Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed,
Red Square, Moscow, 1555-60
Architects: Barma and Posnik of Pskov
Brick and stone masonry are employed to make the inherited tradition of wood architecture more permanent. The onion domes, reconstructed in the 17th century, are covered in glazed tile.
The official name of the church is the Cathedral of the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos on the Moat, even though it is commonly called St. Basil’s.
