Beliefs In Society (religion)

Question 1

Belief system

Answer 1

Framework of ideas through which a person makes sense of the world

Question 2

Ideology

Answer 2

Is a set of beliefs or principles

Question 3

Differences between belief system and ideology

Answer 3

Belief systems extend beyond ideologies including philosophies such as phenomenology existentialism and religions. Belief system is umbrella term for any organised set of ideas and principles. Belief system usually associated with ideas of religious basis. Ideology is regarded as secular term

Question 4

Belief and ideology

Answer 4

Religions claim to explain world around us and also seek to provide us with norms and moral guidelines.

Question 5

Karl popper (1945)

Answer 5

Describes ideologies as secular religions for they too contain both descriptive and normative elements. E.g Marxism is an ideology and believes capitalism is morally wrong. Ideology commonly taken to mean a set of political and economic beliefs. Marx would argue his views are in no way religious

Question 6

Difference between belief systems and ideologies

Answer 6

Based on values. Belief system doesn’t carry judgement but ideology isn’t used in neutral way and claims to have a monopoly on the truth

Question 7

Theorists perceptions

Answer 7

Feminists wouldn’t use ideology to describe their ideas. Neither would Marx who saw his explanation of society as scientific fact. Reserving ideology for what he saw as false distorted views eg mystifying the masses

Question 8

Characteristics of belief system

Answer 8

Framework of belief
Version of truth
Provides perspective and answers
Collection of ideas eg religion

Question 9

Characteristics of ideology

Answer 9

Negative descriptor 
Monopolises the truth 
Bias - reflects a particular viewpoint 
Nazi ideology
Subjective

Question 10

Ideology has taken on a number of related meanings.

Answer 10

Includes negative aspects such as;
Distorted false mistaken ideas about the world
Conceal the interests of particular groups
Prevents change by misleading people
Irrational and closed to criticism

Question 11

Marxism - victim blaming ideas about poverty

Answer 11

Bowles and Gintis (1976) poor is dumb theory. Everyone has same chance in life so the poor must be poor because they are stupid or lazy- not capitalism

Question 12

Marxism and ideology

Answer 12

Racist ideas about inferiority divides workers making them easier to rule
Nationalist ideas that workers and capitalists of one nation have more in common than do the workers of the world

Question 13

Neo-Marxist gramsci (1971)

Answer 13

Ruling class hegemony. WC can develop ideas that challenge RC hegemony as workers have dual consciousness. Possible go WC to overthrow capitalism but needs organic intellectuals.

Question 14

Critic Abercrombie et al (1980)

Answer 14

Fear of unemployment and economic problems keep workers from rebelling

Question 15

Neo-Marxist - ideology and utopia Mannheim

Answer 15

Work on ideology done 1918-1939 - a time of intense political and social conflict. Which influenced his views. Mannheim sees all belief systems as a particular or one-sided worldview. Their one-sidedness results from being the viewpoint of one particular group or class and its interests

Question 16

Mannheim distinguishes between two types of belief system or world view

Answer 16

Ideological thought

Utopian thought

Question 17

Ideological thought

Answer 17

Justifies keeping things as they are. It reflects the position and interests of privileged groups who benefit from the maintenance of the status quo. Their belief system therefore tends to be conservative and favours hierarchy

Question 18

Utopian thought

Answer 18

Justifies social change. It reflects the position and interests of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently. Mannheim sees Marxism as an example of utopian thought

Question 19

Mannheim sees these world views as creations of groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes or social groups.

Answer 19

However because these intellectuals represent the interests of particular groups and not society as a whole they only produce partial views of reality. The belief system of each class or group only gives us a partial truth of the world.

Question 20

For Mannheim this is a source of conflict in society.

Answer 20

Different intellectuals linked to different groups and classes produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justify the interests and claims of their group as against others

Question 21

For Mannheim the solution is to detach the intellectuals from social groups they represent and create a non-aligned or free-floating intelligentsia standing above the conflict.

Answer 21

Freed from representing the interests of groups they would be able to synthesise elements of the different partial ideologies and utopias so as to arrive at a total world view that represented the interests of society as a whole.

However that many of the elements of different ideologies are diametrically opposed to one another and it is therefore very hard to imagine how these could be synthesised.

Question 22

Feminism- Marks (1979) describes how ideas from science have been used to justify excluding women from education.

Answer 22

Quotes (19th doctors scientists and educationalists expressing the view that educating women lead lead to the creation of puny and unfeminine women. Higher education would prevent mothers from feeding.
Patriarchal ideas are also found in religious beliefs and practices

Question 23

Critique of feminism on ideology

Answer 23

Not all elements of religious belief systems subordinate women. Eg evidence in Middle East history and monotheistic religions matriarchal religions with female deities were widespread with female priests. In Hinduism goddesses are mothers of the universe

Question 24

Impacts of science

Answer 24

Many sociologists see modern science as a product of the process of rationalisation that began with the Protestant reformation.
Many believe it had undermined religion by changing the way we think and how we see the world
Science has undoubtedly had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries
Widespread faith in science to deliver the goods

Question 25

Distinguishing science for other belief systems or knowledge

Answer 25

Claims its cognitive power In other it enables us to explain predict and control the world in a way that non-scientific or pre-scientific belief systems cannot

Question 26

Science part of an open belief system

Answer 26

The means that scientific knowledge is provisional it is open to challenge and potentially disprovable Therefore scientific knowledge can change - it is not relative not fixed

Question 27

Metanarrative

Answer 27

A single comprehensive explanation of the world.

Question 28

Scientific rationalism

Answer 28

Scientific method that can provide factual evidence

Question 29

Falsification

Answer 29

Setting out to try and falsify existing theories

Question 30

Popper (1959)

Answer 30

Science is open belief system Process of falsification Knowledge is cumulative Scientific knowledge is not sacred or absolute truth

Question 31

Gould (1999)

Answer 31

Science and religion are two separate realms: science provides certain knowledge about the world whereas moral guidance is the responsibility of religion. This is relativist view which sees science as just one of many beliefs all of which are equally valid

Question 32

Gellner (1974)

Answer 32

Argues with Gould insisting that the objective nature of science sets it above all other forms of knowledge

Question 33

Cudos norms - Merton

Answer 33

C - communism - scientific knowledge is not private property U- universalism - the truth of falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria D - disinterest - being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake but doesn’t have attachment to project OS - organised scepticism - no knowledge is regarded a sacred

Question 34

Critique of science as a closed system

Answer 34

Polanyi (1958) argues all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge claims - science is no different Kuhn (1970) argues that mature science is based on a set of shared assumptions that he calls a paradigm. The paradigm tells scientists what reality is like

Question 35

Critique of science- the sociology of scientific knowledge

Answer 35

Interpretivists argue that all knowledge is socially constructed Marxism and feminism see knowledge as far from pure truth they regard it as serving the interests of dominant groups Postmodernists reject the knowledge claims of science to have the truth Lyotard 1984 science is a number of meta narratives that claim to possess the truth Postmodernists argue that science has become a technoscience serving capitalist interests

Question 36

Definitions of religion

Answer 36

Substantive definitions Functional definitions Social constructionist definition

Question 37

Substantive definitions

Answer 37

Focus on content or substance of religious belief Weber 1905 religion a belief in superior or supernatural power above nature and cannot be explained scientifically Tylor 1871 religion definition belief that all things have a soul and a spirit Stark and Bainbridge 1985 religion involves some conception of a supernatural

Question 38

Functional definitions

Answer 38

Social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society Durkheim 1915 define religion in terms of contribution it makes to social integration rather than specific belief in God or supernatural Turner 1991 argues that Durkheims definition marked the end of a concern with gods or being and the development of an emphasis on the importance of religious practice

Question 39

Social constructionist definitions

Answer 39

Interpretivists view that focus on how members of society define religion Aldridge 2007 shows how followers say Scientology is a religion whereas several governments have denied it legal status as a religion and sought to ban it

Question 40

Sacred and the profane (1912) Durkheim

Answer 40

Claims all societies differentiate between the sacred and profane and argues religion is based on this division. Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices. Sacred provokes powerful emotions. Sacredness isn’t an inherent intrinsic quality it is bestowed However religion for Durkheim is never simply a set of beliefs it involves ritual and practice. Although symbols vary between religions all perform functions of uniting single moral community

Question 41

Totemism - study of religion in simplest form - Aboriginal tribe

Answer 41

Society divided into clans with its own totem. Rituals surrounding it represent the power of the group reinforce the groups solidarity and sense of belonging. Visualising force of their society was represented as a religious symbol. When people worship God they are really worshipping society. Worshipping the moral unity and therefore religious worship can be explained in terms of its social functions.

Question 42

Durkheim- collective conscience

Answer 42

Sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience. Shared religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and bind individuals together as single community. By making us feel part of something greater than ourselves religion reinvigorates and strengthens us to face life’s trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that otherwise defeat us

Question 43

Cognitive functions

Answer 43

Source of knowledge intellect or cognitive capacities. Religion is the origin of human thought. Acceptance of shared thoughts and a moral value system underpins cohesion and stability

Question 44

Civil religion in America Bellah 1970 Civil religion: secular belief system that functions in the same way as religion

Answer 44

America’s national faith | Symbols of Americanism

Question 45

America’s national faith

Answer 45

Civil religion integrates society in the way that individual religions cannot. Loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God both equated with being a true American One nation under god doesn’t specify religion Sacralises the American way of life

Question 46

Symbols of Americanism

Answer 46

Abraham Lincoln is a mythical figure | Migrants travelling in wagon trains seen as heroic treks

Question 47

Malinowski (1954) anthropological data he emphasised the psychological functions that religion plays in specific situations of emotional stress. Identifies 2 emotionally disruptive events where religion becomes functional:

Answer 47

Times of life crisis; events such as birth puberty and death. Religious rituals defuse crisis at these times Uncontrollable and uncertain events; islanders pray during uncertain times for canoe magic

Question 48

Parsons (1965) identifies two essential functions performed by religion in modern societies

Answer 48

It is the primary source of meaning; providing members of society with explanations of events that appear uncontrollable Creates and legitimates society’s central values; provides guidelines for human actions standards against which people’s conduct can be evaluated

Question 49

Marxist perspective on religion

Answer 49

Religion is an illusion. Originated amongst primitive people for fear of unknown. Taken over by bourgeoisie. Sigh if the oppressed religion acts as a social opiate to dull the pain. Doesn’t do anything to full the pain as it is a conservative force

Question 50

How does religion operate in the interests of the ruling class

Answer 50

Opiate of the masses Legitimating inequality Mystification Political and economic roles Eg turning back clocks on societal movements

Question 51

Limitations of Marxist theory

Answer 51

Hosking 1988 churches remained in Soviet society Lane 1970 religion remained important Cuba 1988 Pope visit and people came to see him 40 years communism and religion still strong

Question 52

Neo-Marxism - religion has dual character - stability and can be a force for change

Answer 52

``` Gramsci 1971 - Catholic Church hegemony over members and has supported the interests of the oppressed class Maduro 1982 Latin America liberation theology. Priest autonomy voice of the oppressed. But lost movement in 80s when condemned by PJP. Turner 1983 in feudal times peasants were largely indifferent to religion ```

Question 53

Feminist theory. Product of patriarchy

Answer 53

Giddens 1997 religion hierarchy Mary has divine qualities but women taken from rib of men Armstrong 1993 no major religion particularly good towards women reducing them to marginal positions Holm 1994 major religions typically subordinate women. This second class status is related to sexuality

Question 54

Feminist perspective on religion

Answer 54

De Beauvoir 1953 oppressive to women. Use divine authority to support male dominance. Religion gives false hope of compensation. Subordination maintains status quo. Irony women are essential to religion. Introduce child to religion. El Saadawi 1980 dominant patriarchal ideology allows men to distort religion. Attribute male characteristics to god Watson 1994 open to varied interpretation eg veiling of women

Question 55

Feminism and religion | Historical perspective

Answer 55

Daly 1978 women not always subordinate eg women worshipped for being closer to nature Armstrong 1993 male dominated cultures needed a patriarchal rationale to justify their behaviour. Dominance of monotheism over polytheism represented the death knell for females

Question 56

Feminism and religion | Resistance to oppression

Answer 56

Holm and Bowker 1994 religious organisations exclusively for women form women’s movement Quakerism never oppressed women Kaur-Singh 1994 Sikh gurus pleaded case for women’s emancipation Gross 1994 post patriarchal Buddhism in West doesn’t differentiate roles Badawi 1994 Islam lets women keep family name

Question 57

Secularisation

Answer 57

Church attendance Church membership Religious beliefs Religious clergy

Question 58

Indicators of secularisation

Answer 58

Rationalisation and desacralisation Disengagement and differentiation Social and cultural diversity Religious pluralism

Question 59

Social and cultural diversity

Answer 59

Decline of community Industrialisation Diversity of occupations cultures and lifestyles

Question 60

Religious diversity and pluralism

Answer 60

The sacred canopy Plausibility structure Bruce - cultural defence cultural transition The growth of NRMs

Question 61

Theory of late modernity

Answer 61

Davie 2007 believing without belonging

Question 62

Postmodern theory

Answer 62

``` Relocation of religion Helland 2000 religion online and online religion Religious consumerism Re-enchantment of the world A spiritual revolution ```

Question 63

Religious market theory (rational choice theory)

Answer 63

Stark and Bainbridge 1985 no golden age of religion. People are naturally religious. Growth of NRMs.

Question 64

Existential security theory

Answer 64

Norris and Inglehart 2004 reject religious market theory as it only applies to America. Reasons for such variations is not due to different degrees of religious choice but different degrees of EXISTENTIAL SECURITY. Religion meets need for security that’s why poorer countries have more religion.

Question 65

Characteristics of fundamentalism

Answer 65

``` Authoritative sacred text A us vs them mentality Aggressive reaction to the threat Use of modern technology Patriarchy Conspiracy theories ```

Question 66

Fundamentalism and modernity postmodernity and cosmopolitanism

Answer 66

Davie 2013 fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity Giddens 1999 product of and reaction to globalisation and modernity which undermines traditional norms. Bauman 1992response as postmodernity brings freedom of choice Castells 1998 two responses to postmodernity resistant identity and project identity

Question 67

Monotheism and fundamentalism

Answer 67

Bruce 2008 globalising world threatens beliefs

Question 68

Two fundamentalism’s

Answer 68

West: reaction within a society East: reaction to changes thrust upon a society

Question 69

Secular fundamentalism

Answer 69

Two phases of modernity First phase: enlightenment to 60s Second phase: since 70s Davie both secular and religious movements can become fundamentalist due to greater uncertainties in postmodern world