Beliefs In Society (religion) Flashcards
Belief system
Framework of ideas through which a person makes sense of the world
Ideology
Is a set of beliefs or principles
Differences between belief system and ideology
Belief systems extend beyond ideologies including philosophies such as phenomenology existentialism and religions. Belief system is umbrella term for any organised set of ideas and principles. Belief system usually associated with ideas of religious basis. Ideology is regarded as secular term
Belief and ideology
Religions claim to explain world around us and also seek to provide us with norms and moral guidelines.
Karl popper (1945)
Describes ideologies as secular religions for they too contain both descriptive and normative elements. E.g Marxism is an ideology and believes capitalism is morally wrong. Ideology commonly taken to mean a set of political and economic beliefs. Marx would argue his views are in no way religious
Difference between belief systems and ideologies
Based on values. Belief system doesn’t carry judgement but ideology isn’t used in neutral way and claims to have a monopoly on the truth
Theorists perceptions
Feminists wouldn’t use ideology to describe their ideas. Neither would Marx who saw his explanation of society as scientific fact. Reserving ideology for what he saw as false distorted views eg mystifying the masses
Characteristics of belief system
Framework of belief
Version of truth
Provides perspective and answers
Collection of ideas eg religion
Characteristics of ideology
Negative descriptor Monopolises the truth Bias - reflects a particular viewpoint Nazi ideology Subjective
Ideology has taken on a number of related meanings.
Includes negative aspects such as;
Distorted false mistaken ideas about the world
Conceal the interests of particular groups
Prevents change by misleading people
Irrational and closed to criticism
Marxism - victim blaming ideas about poverty
Bowles and Gintis (1976) poor is dumb theory. Everyone has same chance in life so the poor must be poor because they are stupid or lazy- not capitalism
Marxism and ideology
Racist ideas about inferiority divides workers making them easier to rule
Nationalist ideas that workers and capitalists of one nation have more in common than do the workers of the world
Neo-Marxist gramsci (1971)
Ruling class hegemony. WC can develop ideas that challenge RC hegemony as workers have dual consciousness. Possible go WC to overthrow capitalism but needs organic intellectuals.
Critic Abercrombie et al (1980)
Fear of unemployment and economic problems keep workers from rebelling
Neo-Marxist - ideology and utopia Mannheim
Work on ideology done 1918-1939 - a time of intense political and social conflict. Which influenced his views. Mannheim sees all belief systems as a particular or one-sided worldview. Their one-sidedness results from being the viewpoint of one particular group or class and its interests
Mannheim distinguishes between two types of belief system or world view
Ideological thought
Utopian thought
Ideological thought
Justifies keeping things as they are. It reflects the position and interests of privileged groups who benefit from the maintenance of the status quo. Their belief system therefore tends to be conservative and favours hierarchy
Utopian thought
Justifies social change. It reflects the position and interests of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how society could be organised differently. Mannheim sees Marxism as an example of utopian thought
Mannheim sees these world views as creations of groups of intellectuals who attach themselves to particular classes or social groups.
However because these intellectuals represent the interests of particular groups and not society as a whole they only produce partial views of reality. The belief system of each class or group only gives us a partial truth of the world.
For Mannheim this is a source of conflict in society.
Different intellectuals linked to different groups and classes produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justify the interests and claims of their group as against others
For Mannheim the solution is to detach the intellectuals from social groups they represent and create a non-aligned or free-floating intelligentsia standing above the conflict.
Freed from representing the interests of groups they would be able to synthesise elements of the different partial ideologies and utopias so as to arrive at a total world view that represented the interests of society as a whole.
However that many of the elements of different ideologies are diametrically opposed to one another and it is therefore very hard to imagine how these could be synthesised.
Feminism- Marks (1979) describes how ideas from science have been used to justify excluding women from education.
Quotes (19th doctors scientists and educationalists expressing the view that educating women lead lead to the creation of puny and unfeminine women. Higher education would prevent mothers from feeding.
Patriarchal ideas are also found in religious beliefs and practices
Critique of feminism on ideology
Not all elements of religious belief systems subordinate women. Eg evidence in Middle East history and monotheistic religions matriarchal religions with female deities were widespread with female priests. In Hinduism goddesses are mothers of the universe
Impacts of science
Many sociologists see modern science as a product of the process of rationalisation that began with the Protestant reformation.
Many believe it had undermined religion by changing the way we think and how we see the world
Science has undoubtedly had an enormous impact on society over the last few centuries
Widespread faith in science to deliver the goods
Distinguishing science for other belief systems or knowledge
Claims its cognitive power
In other it enables us to explain predict and control the world in a way that non-scientific or pre-scientific belief systems cannot
Science part of an open belief system
The means that scientific knowledge is provisional it is open to challenge and potentially disprovable
Therefore scientific knowledge can change - it is not relative not fixed
Metanarrative
A single comprehensive explanation of the world.
Scientific rationalism
Scientific method that can provide factual evidence
Falsification
Setting out to try and falsify existing theories
Popper (1959)
Science is open belief system
Process of falsification
Knowledge is cumulative
Scientific knowledge is not sacred or absolute truth
Gould (1999)
Science and religion are two separate realms: science provides certain knowledge about the world whereas moral guidance is the responsibility of religion.
This is relativist view which sees science as just one of many beliefs all of which are equally valid
Gellner (1974)
Argues with Gould insisting that the objective nature of science sets it above all other forms of knowledge
Cudos norms - Merton
C - communism - scientific knowledge is not private property
U- universalism - the truth of falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria
D - disinterest - being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake but doesn’t have attachment to project
OS - organised scepticism - no knowledge is regarded a sacred
Critique of science as a closed system
Polanyi (1958) argues all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge claims - science is no different
Kuhn (1970) argues that mature science is based on a set of shared assumptions that he calls a paradigm. The paradigm tells scientists what reality is like
Critique of science- the sociology of scientific knowledge
Interpretivists argue that all knowledge is socially constructed
Marxism and feminism see knowledge as far from pure truth they regard it as serving the interests of dominant groups
Postmodernists reject the knowledge claims of science to have the truth
Lyotard 1984 science is a number of meta narratives that claim to possess the truth
Postmodernists argue that science has become a technoscience serving capitalist interests
Definitions of religion
Substantive definitions
Functional definitions
Social constructionist definition
Substantive definitions
Focus on content or substance of religious belief
Weber 1905 religion a belief in superior or supernatural power above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
Tylor 1871 religion definition belief that all things have a soul and a spirit
Stark and Bainbridge 1985 religion involves some conception of a supernatural
Functional definitions
Social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society
Durkheim 1915 define religion in terms of contribution it makes to social integration rather than specific belief in God or supernatural
Turner 1991 argues that Durkheims definition marked the end of a concern with gods or being and the development of an emphasis on the importance of religious practice
Social constructionist definitions
Interpretivists view that focus on how members of society define religion
Aldridge 2007 shows how followers say Scientology is a religion whereas several governments have denied it legal status as a religion and sought to ban it
Sacred and the profane (1912) Durkheim
Claims all societies differentiate between the sacred and profane and argues religion is based on this division. Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices. Sacred provokes powerful emotions. Sacredness isn’t an inherent intrinsic quality it is bestowed
However religion for Durkheim is never simply a set of beliefs it involves ritual and practice. Although symbols vary between religions all perform functions of uniting single moral community
Totemism - study of religion in simplest form - Aboriginal tribe
Society divided into clans with its own totem. Rituals surrounding it represent the power of the group reinforce the groups solidarity and sense of belonging. Visualising force of their society was represented as a religious symbol. When people worship God they are really worshipping society. Worshipping the moral unity and therefore religious worship can be explained in terms of its social functions.
Durkheim- collective conscience
Sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience. Shared religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and bind individuals together as single community. By making us feel part of something greater than ourselves religion reinvigorates and strengthens us to face life’s trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that otherwise defeat us
Cognitive functions
Source of knowledge intellect or cognitive capacities. Religion is the origin of human thought. Acceptance of shared thoughts and a moral value system underpins cohesion and stability
Civil religion in America
Bellah 1970
Civil religion: secular belief system that functions in the same way as religion
America’s national faith
Symbols of Americanism
America’s national faith
Civil religion integrates society in the way that individual religions cannot. Loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God both equated with being a true American
One nation under god doesn’t specify religion
Sacralises the American way of life
Symbols of Americanism
Abraham Lincoln is a mythical figure
Migrants travelling in wagon trains seen as heroic treks
Malinowski (1954) anthropological data he emphasised the psychological functions that religion plays in specific situations of emotional stress. Identifies 2 emotionally disruptive events where religion becomes functional:
Times of life crisis; events such as birth puberty and death. Religious rituals defuse crisis at these times
Uncontrollable and uncertain events; islanders pray during uncertain times for canoe magic
Parsons (1965) identifies two essential functions performed by religion in modern societies
It is the primary source of meaning; providing members of society with explanations of events that appear uncontrollable
Creates and legitimates society’s central values; provides guidelines for human actions standards against which people’s conduct can be evaluated
Marxist perspective on religion
Religion is an illusion. Originated amongst primitive people for fear of unknown. Taken over by bourgeoisie. Sigh if the oppressed religion acts as a social opiate to dull the pain. Doesn’t do anything to full the pain as it is a conservative force
How does religion operate in the interests of the ruling class
Opiate of the masses
Legitimating inequality
Mystification
Political and economic roles
Eg turning back clocks on societal movements
Limitations of Marxist theory
Hosking 1988 churches remained in Soviet society
Lane 1970 religion remained important
Cuba 1988 Pope visit and people came to see him 40 years communism and religion still strong
Neo-Marxism - religion has dual character - stability and can be a force for change
Gramsci 1971 - Catholic Church hegemony over members and has supported the interests of the oppressed class Maduro 1982 Latin America liberation theology. Priest autonomy voice of the oppressed. But lost movement in 80s when condemned by PJP. Turner 1983 in feudal times peasants were largely indifferent to religion
Feminist theory. Product of patriarchy
Giddens 1997 religion hierarchy Mary has divine qualities but women taken from rib of men
Armstrong 1993 no major religion particularly good towards women reducing them to marginal positions
Holm 1994 major religions typically subordinate women. This second class status is related to sexuality
Feminist perspective on religion
De Beauvoir 1953 oppressive to women. Use divine authority to support male dominance. Religion gives false hope of compensation. Subordination maintains status quo. Irony women are essential to religion. Introduce child to religion.
El Saadawi 1980 dominant patriarchal ideology allows men to distort religion. Attribute male characteristics to god
Watson 1994 open to varied interpretation eg veiling of women
Feminism and religion
Historical perspective
Daly 1978 women not always subordinate eg women worshipped for being closer to nature
Armstrong 1993 male dominated cultures needed a patriarchal rationale to justify their behaviour. Dominance of monotheism over polytheism represented the death knell for females
Feminism and religion
Resistance to oppression
Holm and Bowker 1994 religious organisations exclusively for women form women’s movement
Quakerism never oppressed women
Kaur-Singh 1994 Sikh gurus pleaded case for women’s emancipation
Gross 1994 post patriarchal Buddhism in West doesn’t differentiate roles
Badawi 1994 Islam lets women keep family name
Secularisation
Church attendance
Church membership
Religious beliefs
Religious clergy
Indicators of secularisation
Rationalisation and desacralisation
Disengagement and differentiation
Social and cultural diversity
Religious pluralism
Social and cultural diversity
Decline of community
Industrialisation
Diversity of occupations cultures and lifestyles
Religious diversity and pluralism
The sacred canopy
Plausibility structure
Bruce - cultural defence cultural transition
The growth of NRMs
Theory of late modernity
Davie 2007 believing without belonging
Postmodern theory
Relocation of religion Helland 2000 religion online and online religion Religious consumerism Re-enchantment of the world A spiritual revolution
Religious market theory (rational choice theory)
Stark and Bainbridge 1985 no golden age of religion. People are naturally religious. Growth of NRMs.
Existential security theory
Norris and Inglehart 2004 reject religious market theory as it only applies to America. Reasons for such variations is not due to different degrees of religious choice but different degrees of EXISTENTIAL SECURITY. Religion meets need for security that’s why poorer countries have more religion.
Characteristics of fundamentalism
Authoritative sacred text A us vs them mentality Aggressive reaction to the threat Use of modern technology Patriarchy Conspiracy theories
Fundamentalism and modernity postmodernity and cosmopolitanism
Davie 2013 fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity
Giddens 1999 product of and reaction to globalisation and modernity which undermines traditional norms.
Bauman 1992response as postmodernity brings freedom of choice
Castells 1998 two responses to postmodernity resistant identity and project identity
Monotheism and fundamentalism
Bruce 2008 globalising world threatens beliefs
Two fundamentalism’s
West: reaction within a society
East: reaction to changes thrust upon a society
Secular fundamentalism
Two phases of modernity
First phase: enlightenment to 60s
Second phase: since 70s
Davie both secular and religious movements can become fundamentalist due to greater uncertainties in postmodern world
