Beliefs in society Flashcards
Substantive definition of religion
Its a belief in god, thats above nature and cannot be explained scientifically
(-) too exclusive
(-) Requires a belief in the western idea of god
Functional Definition of religion
Looks at the functions religions performs for individuals and society.
(+) includes a wide range of beliefs
(-) too broad as it could include anything that has a useful role e.g football
Social construct definition
Different perceptions and individual belief is focused upon.
(+) interested in the meaning individuals give to religion
(-) impossible to generalise the nature of religion
Types of religion
totemism- totems are plants or animals that are believed to have some sort of supernatural power.
ANIMISM- refers to beliefs in ghosts or spirits
THEISTIC RELIGION-
centre around the beliefs in a sacred, higher and controlling power.
- monotheistic religion - one divine power
- polytheistic- Focuses on a number of separate gods.
science as an open belief system
KARL POPPER-
Says science is an open belief systems as scientific theories are open to scrutiny to others.
The principle of falsification controls science, as scientists deliberately seek evidence to disprove a theory- cannot approve only disprove.
Therefore a scientific theory can be discarded- and search for a new explanation begins.
He says science is cumulative- as you build on ideas from previous scientists to develop more of an understanding.
Robert Merton-
Science can only thrive if it receives support from others.
Scientists need a set of norms that make them act in a way to increase scientific knowledge. CUDOS
Communism- knowledge must be shared.
Universalism- Scientific knowledge based on universal judgement
Disinterestedness- knowledge for its own sake
Organised sceptism- idea is open to scrutiny and questioning
THEREFORE- scientific knowledge is open to challenge and can be disproved.
RELIGION AS A CLOSED BELIEF SYSTEM
Religion claims to have specific knowledge of the absoulte truth. it is scared and therefore cannot be challenged.
Example is Edwards study of the azande who believe natural events have natural causes and don’t believe in coincidence or chance.
They are trapped in their own belief system as they accept the idea of witchcraft therefore cannot be challenged. Closed belief system which cannot be overturned even with evidence- don’t listen to others opinion.
AMERICAN SCIENTISTS-
reject evolution theory due to religious beliefs- showing science cannot replace nor interfere with religion leaving it a closed belief system.
SCIENCE AS A CLOSED BELIEF SYSTEM
Dr Velikovsky-
He put forwards a new theory of the origins of the earth that challenged the most fundamental assumptions.
His ideas were rejected and closed to scrutiny and boycotted.
Thomas Kuhn-
science is based on a set of shared assumptions- paradigms.
Any scientist who challenges the fundamental paradigms is ridiculed and disregarded by peers.
E.g scientists now work on the assumption that the world is round so they conduct there research around this belief.
E.g little green men- kept in codes and didn’t tell others in fear of being ridiculed.
ideology
An ideology is a belief system that supports the interests of one social group and can therefore be used to maintain the power of the dominant social group.
Marxism and ideology.
- Marxists argue that capitalists and other class based societies are dominated by the ruling class ideology= which are a set of beliefs that support the interests of the dominant economic group/class in society.
- Marxists believe that capitalist society are divided into two classes;
a) the dominant ruling the class who own the means of production
b) subject class- working class who don’t own the means of production and have to work for the ruling class in order to survive. - Structure of society has two parts;
the economic base which has the means of production
the superstructers- non economic parts such as religion - Marxists argue the ruling class exploit the working class and attempt to maintain dominance by controlling their ideas, beliefs and values of society.
- Marxists argue the ruling class ideology is reproduced
by mass media encouraging
- acceptance of capitalism as the best or viable economic system.
- consumer culture - consume products of capitalism to make profits for companies.
- passive workforce that doesn’t question its lower wages.
Key studies of marxism and ideology
Raymond willias ; Class + ideology claims that ruling class have more of an individualistic culture ( persue own individual interests) Whilst working class have more of an collectivist culture (succeeding through group action) Further more ruling class ideology isn't always dominant and can be challenged by residual ideology ( ideology of a declining class) and emergent ideology (new class thats developing) - Residual and emergent may be oppositional (opposed to dominant culture) or alternative ( coexists with dominant culture)
2. Antonio Gramsci ; dual consciousness Hegemony is know as the ideological dominance of ruling class. working class develop a dual consciousness to challenge this- due to a mixture of being influenced by ruling class through media, education and religion an their own experiences of exploitation. Allowing them to develop class consciousness and overthrow capitalism.
- Karl mannhelim - Ideology and utopia
Sees all beliefs systems as a partial or one sided view of the world based on the view of a particular group or class. He identifies 2 main types of belief systems;
Ideological thought;
who benefit from maintaining dominance and reflect the position of the privilege groups in society.
Utopian thought;
Justifies social change, It reflects the position of the underprivileged and offers a vision of how ruling class \domiance can be overthrown.
Eval of marxism ideology
For ;
Glasgow media group claim media has a consistent pro capitalism bias supporting gramsci theory of dual consciousness that WC are influenced by ruling class due to the media and ruling class ideology is reinforced through media.
American marxists- Bowles and gintis 1976 claimed that Us education system created a docile workers
Dominant ideology reproduced though the education system which encourages a passive workforce and acceptance of capitalism
They also control the values, beliefs and ideas.
AGAINST;
1. Feminists argue that ideology reflects patriarchal divisions rather than class divisions which goes against marxists view.
Postmodernists say class is declining
Raymond williams
Feminists and ideology
- Feminists believe that patriarchal ideologys dominate society. it involves beliefs such as;
- men are superior to women
- men are more logical than women
- women are too emotional to hold position of responsibility
- Natural for womens responsibility to be childcare.
Radical feminists = Kate miller
Beleved men are socialised into having a dominant temperament by society culture, however violence can also play a part in maintaining male dominance.
Germaine Greer 2000
Patriarchal ideology is entrenched into society- relflected in the way women are expected to improve physical appearance to attract men.
Socialist feminists; Margaret Benston 1972;
The ideology which sees women as secondary wage earners benefit both ale power and capitalism as women have less economic power than man.
Black feminists; Heidi Safia miariza 1997
Black women are doubly disadvantaged by racists aswell as patriarchal ideology.
However some challenge it by working harder to succeed.
CRITICMS ;
1. Valerie Bryson
criticises idea of patriarchy and argue it merely describes rather explains gender inequality
2. Feminists views of ideology becoming less relevant as opportunities have increased for women and western societies are becoming less patriarchal.
Discourse analysis
Alternative approach who see beliefs as creating ideology.
its a research method that interprets messages found in language.
- looks at how people exercise power by writing, thinking and talking about something in a certain way revealing ideologies.
good point= very useful in developing understanding of racism.
Bad = Its influenced and created by powerful people.
Postmodernsim ideology
Provide an alternative explanation using the concept of mettanarratives to explain how the world works. However modernity mettanarritives end in disaster;
this challanges the marxists and feminists as it says class is declining.
Greg and david miller say this is a ideology itself.
Functionalist perspective of religion
For functionalists each institution performs a certain role that contributes to the maintaining of the social system.
They say Religion is an important function in society as it bind people together like social cement- leading to social stability.
They also argue that religious institutions play a central part in creating and maintaining value consensus as without it individual selfishness would cause social disintegration.
Durkheim - the sacred and profane
For Durkheim the key feature isn’t a belief in god but a fundamental distinction between the scared and profane.
Sacred being things that have special significance which inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder.
Profane being ordinary things.
Religion involves the practices and rituals in relation to the scared, these rituals are collective and therefore the sacred evokes powerful feelings and represents greater power (society).
Totemism;
Durkheim believes the essence of all religion can be explained by studying it in its simplest form totemism in its simplest society. Hoping to generalise religion overall.
He used his study of the Australian tribe who come together periodically to perform rituals which involve worshipping the totem.
A totem can be a plant or animal that symbolises the clans origins. reinforcing social solidarity and sense of belonging.
Durkheim says that when worshipping the totem you are in fact worshipping society. it inspires feelings of awe and representing power of the group.
The collective consciousness;
In the Durkheim’s view the sacred symbols represent societies collective conscious. Which are societies shared norms, values, knowledge and beliefs that make social life possible as without it society would disintegrate.
Share religious rituals reinforce the groups collective conscious and maintains social solidarity.
Religion performs an important function for society as it makes us feel part of something greater.
Cognitive functions of religion ;
Durkheim sees religion as a source of our social solidarity and source of our intellectual and cognitive capacities.
Eval
worsley
Malinowsky
Parson
Bella
Eval
Marxists view on relgion
Marxists see all societies as divided into two classes, one that exploits the labour of another. In a non communist society - the ruling class own all the means of production due to wealth and power This therefore allows them to exploit the working class creating class conflict. It also allows them to control the superstructures of society. Marx predicited that they would become aware of their oppression and overthrow capitlaism leading to a classless society where relgion is no longer needed.
Religion + ideology Religion and alienation Religion as opium of masses religion as a social construct Evidence to support them criticisms
Neo Marxism
New marxists who are strongly influenced by the writings of karl marx but do not agree to all aspects of them
They do not agree that the superstructures are completely controlled by ruling class
Otto maduro - relative autonomy of religion
- believes that religion has some indepdence of relative autonomy from the ruling class control
- he denies that religion is always a conservative force and says it can be revolutionary.
E.g catholi churches in latin american
They sided with the bourgoursie in that they gave little support to flee trade unions and strikes
however christian priseats stated to speak to the interests of the poor and some developed the liberation theology which interpreted christians as being on the poors side. This supports neo marxism in that theyre being revolutionary and not opium of masses.
Feminist view of religion
- Feminist believe that religion doesn’t serve the interests of society as a whole but rather serves the interests of a certain group in society- males
- They argue religion tends to be a force preventing change and maintaining the power of men.
- says that society is patriarchal therefore regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates gender inequality.
- Religious beliefs functions as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination.
SUPPORT- Examples;
- Religious laws and customs;
- Give fewer rights to women over men - e.g dress code- islamic women have to cover themselves.
- May lead to unequal treatment- genital mutilation.
- Many religions legitimate and regulate womens traditional, domestic and reproductive role- E.h Catholic churches ban contraception and abortion. - Religious organisations;
- Mainly male dominated e.g Othodox religions forbid women to become priests.
Armstrong says this exlusion from priesthood is an example of their marginalisation. - Places of worship;
- Segregate males and females. Marginalise women from acts of worship- e.g reading sacred text.
- also see women as pollutant when pregnant or menstruating as seen as being dirty and cannot enter place of worship till cleansed- preventing participation.
e. g Hindues - women not allowed near family shrine. - Sacred texts-
Largely feature the doings of a male god / prophet.
Also many religions have a anti-female stereotype.
AGAINST;
However some feminists argue that women haven’t always been subordinate to men in religion.
Karan Armstrong 1993- Argues women used to be placed at the centre of religion. such as earth mother godess and female priests. However the monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a all powerful male god.
EL SAADAWI - 1980;
- Religious patriarchy is the result of a patriarchal society coming into existence which began to influence and reshape religion.
- Men interpret religion in a way that favour patriarchy. which distorts the true beliefs and legitimates female subordination.
SUPPORT- example of religions;
- Hindus- Only male can become brahim priests and women cannot approach the family shrine whilst pregnant.
- Islam- Mohammed was a male prophet and males are make all the legal judgement and are religious leaders.
- Chinese folk- Ying = women and yang= men who are seen to be more powerful and important.
AGAINST- Linda woodhead;
- Although many traditional religions are patriarchal this is not the case for all.
- there are religious forms of patriarchy- Where women look to religion as a form of freedom and respect.
e. g - while western women see a hijab worn by a women as a sign of oppression, the the wearer it may symbolise resistance to oppression.
- Symbol of liberation enabling her to enter public without loosing her culture or history. - Women use religion to gain greater status and respect within the home and family- e.g strong evangelical christians believe men should respect women .
SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR;
- Although she is a radical feminists - her views incorporate with marxism;
- portrays religion as a instrument for male domination
- Argues men usually control religious organisations and claim their authority comes from god.
- Some religions portray women as being closer to god but only if they passive and don’t question male authority
e. g quote from bible said women must learn in quietness and full submission- i do not permit a women to teach nor assume authority over man- she must be quiet. - Religion then gives a false belief that they will be reawarded in the after life for suffering- giving them a false consciousness keeping them in their place.
- It decieves them into thinking they are equal to men when in reality they are disadvantaged as being the second sex.
- Views incorporate with marxists
EVAL;
- Church of england allow female priests
- Religion isnt always patriarchy - sikhism
- Fuctionalists
- Marxists.
Linda woodhead
Argues that although must religion is traditional and patriarchal this cannot be explained for all.
There are religious forms of feminism ways women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.
simone de beauvoir
Portrays religion as an instrument of male domination
Conservative force- religion
Sociologists argue that religion acts as a conservative force whilst others argue that religion can be used as a radical force that is religion can be used as a force for social change.
Religion can be seen as a conservative force in two different ways, by preserving traditional values and beliefs as most religions oppose changes that allow individuals more freedom such as Catholic church forbid divorce, abortion and contraception. Secondly due to it preventing social change due to religious functions conserving or preserving things as they are, maintaining the status quo.
This view of religion is supported by functionalists, feminists and marxists.
FUNCTIONALISTS;
see religion as a conservative force maintaining social stability and preventing disintegration, this is done through collective conscious which are shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that makes social life possible, as functionalists argue shared religious rituals reinforce collective conscious and maintains social integration.
Parson identifies two functions that religion performs he says it creates and legitimates societies central values by making them scared and is the primary source of meaning.
MARXISTS AND FEMINISTS; see religion as an ideology that supports the existing social structure and as a means of social control in the interests of the powerful.
MARXISITS;
- see religion as a conservative ideology preventing social change by legitimising or disguising inequality.
- it creates a false consciousness in the working class and prevents revolution. due to rewards in the after life.
- It also legitimates the power and privilege of the ruling class by making their positions appear divinely ordained.
FEMINISTS;
- Say religion is a conservative force because it legitimates patriarchal power and maintains women subordination in the family and society.
- e.gReligious organisations are mainly male dominated as orthodox religions forbid women from becoming priests.
- also place of worship often segregate sexes and marginalise women in acts of worship and they cannot go into church until they are cleansed preventing their participation.
El saadawi argues religious patriarchy is due to patriarchy society and men reinterpreted religious beliefs in a way that favours patriarchy.
Radical force
However where traditional views have already lost their importance religion can sometimes be a force for change supporting traditional values. E.g In Iran1979, the country had become westernised and thereby overthrown traditional islamic views, so were replaced by an islamic revolution. Thus religion caused change at the same time as supporting traditional values.
Religion is therefore also said to be a radical force.
This was also supported by Bruce 2003 and study of new christian right-
was interested in the relationship between religion and social change, he compared two case studies of the role of religiously inspired protest movements.
Civil rights movement
The new christian right.
The new christian right;
It is an example of a religious movement aiming for conservative social change- changing society back to a previous form.
Its a politically, morally conservative, protestant fundamentalist movement.
Aims to make abortion, homosexuality and divorce illegal turning back clock to a time before liberations of society.
American civil right movement;
The black civil rights movement attempted to end racial segregation as blacks were denied many rights.
direct action was taken by protest marches and demonstrations
They shame the whites into changing the law by appealing to their shared christian values of equality.
Bruce sees this as an example of religion becoming involved in secular struggle and helping to being about change.
Modern day social change;
9/11 attacks
carried out by islamic organisation who used religious islamic views to justify actions - misinterpreted religion
This led to changes in Us foreign policy
invasion on Afghanistan
iraq war
both of which led to regime changes in those countries
Isis paris attacks
carried out by islamic organisation who used religious islamic views to justify actions - misinterpreted religion
resulted in french airstrike
French and Uk working as allies
- Max weber argued that religion could be used to support any set of beliefs including those which lead to changes in society.
- He argues against the Marxist view that religion is shaped by the economic base of soeciety and says religion can cause economic change.
- Weber the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism argues that the religious beliefs of calvinism helped bring about major social change- the emergence of modern capitalism.
This was because calvinists who were uncertain about the future had to convince themselves they were one of the elect.
This resulted in a ascetic lifestyle where they forgo life pleasures and encourage devotion to work which was seen as gods calling, where money wasn’t wasted on luxurious.
Money was invested becoming profitable. Calvinism led to the spirit of capitalism who acted the same way.
Capitalism led to undermining religious beliefs and therefore calvinism encouraged secularisation and little room left for faith.
EVAL ;
Calvinism doesn’t always lead to capitalism as in Hinduism they didn’t have the necessary economic factors but had the calvinist beliefs therefore capitalism did not take off- they only believed in devotion to hard working for an afterlife in heaven- ascetic lifestyle.
- Sombart 1907 argued that calvinism attacked greed and were making money for its own sake.
- However Weber argued it was not the beliefs but the indirect beliefs in predestination that led to the protestant work ethic. - The marxist kitschy 1953 claimed that capitalism was predated and therefore caused protestantism
- Weber argues that reinvestment and the pursuit of profit the key features of capitalism only came after protestantism. - Scotland, Switzerland, hungrary and parts of the netherlands were strongly Calvinists but were not amongst the first areas to become capitalists
- However Marshall 1982 argues these countries lacked the economic conditions necessary for capitalism to develop.
Neo Marxists;
recognise religion as having a dual character- both for a force for change and stability. as it can legitimate class inequalities but also be independent from capitalist society
ERNEST BLOCH; the principle of hope
he accepts religion inhibits change but argues can also inspire protest and rebellion.
Religion contains images of utopia and although this can sometimes deceive people it can also creates a vision of a better world and strive for social change.
e.g Liberation theology emerged within the catholic church within Latin america opposing dictatorship.
millenarian movement; cargo cults believed in cargo that arrived for colonists were meant for them causing widespread unrest.
Gramsci - religion and hegemony; is interested in how the ruling class maintain their control over society through ideas rather than through force. hegemony - ideological domination or leadership of society - is the way the ruling class are able to use ideas such a religion to maintain control However in some circumstances religion can challenge the ruling class- may help working class to see through the hegemony. so a conservative and force for change.
There are three factors that Meredith B says allows religion to enable social change;
There are three factors that Meredith B says allows religion to enable social change;
- Religions with strong moral codes are more likely to have followers who are critical of society and therefore may take action to change it.
- Societies in which religious beliefs are central to the culture (latin america) provide more opportunities for people to use religion to mobilise a movement for change.
- Where religious organisations play a central role in the economic and political structure of society, they have more chance of producing change.
HOW RELIGION CAN ACT AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE WHILST BEING A FORCE FOR CHANGE;
Fundamentalists religions believe that a set of religious beliefs have been watered down or under threat
they are opposed to to the decline of those beliefs and wish to return the the original basic fundamental beliefs of their religion.
this often means they return to the beliefs of an original text that their religion is based on to avoid straying away from it.
Fundamentalism can be seen as a response to secularisation
e.g new christian rights- interpret the bible literally
al QUeda - saudi arabia muslim group- responsible to terrorists attacks.
BJP- hindu group who believe india should be governed by hindu laws not secular laws that recognise all religious minorities.
Radical - seeking social change
Fundamentalists cause conflict with other groups who they see as a threat to their religion
cause conflict with followers of same group who do not share same interpretation
seek to reverse changes that have already taken place in society
therefore act as both conservative and radical force.
