Beliefs in Society Flashcards
1
Q
What do functionalists see society as like?
A
An organism, with basic needs that it must meet to survive. Each institution performs certain functions to maintain the social system by meeting a need.
2
Q
What is societies most basic need?
A
For social order and solidarity.
3
Q
What makes order possible in the view of a functionalist?
A
Value consensus, meaning a set of shared norms and values for people to follow.
4
Q
What does Durkheim argue that religious institution play a part in?
A
Creating and maintaining value consensus, order and solidarity.
5
Q
What is meant by the sacred?
A
Things that are set apart and forbidden, inspiring feelings of awe, fear and wonder, with taboo and prohibitions.
6
Q
What is meant by the profane?
A
Things that are ordinary and have no special significance.
7
Q
Explain rituals in relation to religions
A
Religions have sacred rituals or practices and these rituals are collective, meaning performed by social groups.
8
Q
What’s Durkheim’s view on sacred things?
A
He argues that sacred things create powerful feelings in believers because they are symbols representing something of greater power, and this thing can only be society.
9
Q
What does Durkheim say that sacred symbols perform?
A
The essential functions of uniting believers into a single, moral community.
10
Q
What is a totem?
A
The clan’s emblem.
11
Q
What do the totemic rituals reinforce?
A
The groups solidarity and sense of belonging.
12
Q
What does Durkheim says happens when a clan member worships their totem?
A
They are in reality worshiping society, as the totem inspires awe in the clan’s members precisely because it represents the power of the group.
13
Q
Define collective conscience
A
The shared norms, values and beliefs that make cooperation between individuals possible as without these, society would disintegrate.
14
Q
How does religion perform functions for individuals?
A
By making us feel part of something greater than ourselves, it strengthens us to face life’s problems.
15
Q
Define cognitive capabilities
A
Our ability to reason and think conceptually.
16
Q
What does Durkheim think religion was?
A
The origin of human thought, reason and science.
17
Q
What does Malinowski see religion as promoting?
A
Solidarity, by performing psychological functions for individuals, helping them cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity.
18
Q
What is meant by the psychological function ‘where the outcome is important but uncontrollable and uncertain’?
A
Whereby, when people gain a sense of control, it eases tension and gives them confidence to undertake hazardous tasks and reinforces group solidarity.
19
Q
What is meant by the psychological function ‘at times of life crises’?
A
Events are sometimes seen as potentially disruptive changes, so Malinowski argues that death is the main reason for the existence of religious beliefs.
20
Q
What two functions does Parsons identify in relation to religion in modern society?
A
- Creating and legitimating societies basic norms and values.
- Providing a source of meaning, answering ‘ultimate’ questions.
21
Q
Define civil religion
A
A belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself. Civil religion is a faith in ‘the American way of life’ .
22
Q
What does Bellah argues unifies society?
A
Religio, especially in a multi-faith society like America, and what unifies the American society is civil religion.
23
Q
Does functionalism emphasise positive or negative functions that religion performs?
A
The positive functions.
24
Q
What creates class conflict?
A
As Marxists see society as divided into two classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, with one exploiting the other, with the belief that the working class would become aware of the exploitation and overthrow capitalism.
25
What is the end result of class conflict?
A classless society and an end to exploitation.
26
What are Marxists views on ideology?
A belief system that distorts peoples perception of reality in the interests of the ruling class.
27
Why do Marxists see religion as an ideological weapon?
It's used by the ruling class to legitimate (justify) the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god-given.
28
What does religion mislead the poor into believing?
That they will be rewarded in the afterlife.
29
Define false consciousness
A distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.
30
Define 'spiritual gin'
A term used by Lenin, describing religion in the sense that it confuses the working class and keeps them in their place.
31
Define 'mystical fog'
The idea that the ruling class use religion to manipulate the masses and keep them from attempting to overthrow capitalism by creating this and will obscure reality.
32
How does religion legitimate the power and privilege of the dominant class?
By making their position appear divinely ordained.
33
Define alienation
Becoming separated from or losing control over something that one has produced or created.
34
What does Marx see religion as the product of?
Alienation.
35
How are workers alienated under capitalism?
As they don't own what what produce, have no control over the production process and are in the factory based division of labour, meaning the workers endlessly repeat the same monotonous task.
36
What is the phrase used to explain how religion is a form of consolation?
'The opium of the people. It is the sign of the oppressed creature'.
37
How does religion act as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation?
It promises an afterlife to distract the attention from the true source of the suffering, in this case, capitalism.
38
Why does Althusser reject the concept of alienation?
As unscientific, meaning it would make an inadequate basis for a theory of religion.
39
Define patriarchal
Based on male domination.
40
How are religious institutions patriarchal?
They reflect and perpetuate gender inequality.
41
How are religious beliefs patriarchal?
They have patriarchal ideologies that legitimate women's subordination.
42
Explain how religious organisations are patriarchal
They are mainly male dominated and Armstrong sees women's exclusion as evidence of their marginalisation.
43
Explain how places of worship are patriarchal
They often segregate between the sexes and marginalise women in acts of worship.
44
Explain how sacred texts are patriarchal
They largely feature the doings of male gods and prophets and often reflect anti female stereotypes.
45
Explain how religious laws and customs are patriarchal
They often give women fewer rights than men.
46
Define 'religious forms of feminism'
The ways women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.
47
Does Woodhead think that all religions are patriarchal?
No because there are 'religious forms of feminism'.
48
Where might a women use religion to gain status and respect?
Within the home and family.
49
How can religion be seen as a conservative force?
- In the sense of it being traditional.
| - As it functions to conserve or preserve things as they are, maintaining the status quo.
50
What conservative beliefs do some religions have?
About moral issues and oppose changes that allow individuals more freedom.
51
What 'family values' do religions uphold?
Those supporting a traditional patriarchal domestic division of labour.
52
What do religions conservative functions contribute to?
Social stability.
53
What do functionalists see religion as?
A conservative force, maintaining social solidarity and preventing disintegration.
54
What do Marxists and feminists see religion as?
An ideology that supports the existing social structure and as a means of social control in the interests of the powerful.
55
Explain the link between religion and capitalism
Marx sees religion as a conservative ideology preventing social change. by legitimating or disguising inequality, it creates a false consciousness in the working class and prevents revolution.
56
Explain the link between religion and patriarchy
Feminists see religion as a conservative force because it legitimates patriarchal power and maintains women's subordinate position in the family and society.
57
What does Weber believe brought about major social change?
Calvinism.
58
Explain what Weber means by 'the spirit of capitalism'
Modern capitalism is unique because it is based on the systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake, rather that for spending on luxuries.
59
Explain the Calvinist beliefs
- Predestination, God predetermines who will be saves 'the elect', and individuals can do nothing to change this.
- Divine transcendence, God is so far, above and beyond this world, that no human being could possible claim to know his will, leaving Calvinists to feel 'an unprecedented inner loneliness', this then creates what Weber calls 'a salvation' panic among Calvinists.
- Asceticism, abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial.
- The idea of a vocation, or calling to serve God.
60
What does a Calvinist lifestyle involve?
Shunning all luxury, working long hours and practicing rigorous self-discipline.
61
What are the characteristics of Calvinists?
- Driven by their work ethic, the systematically accumulate wealth but did not spend it on luxuries (asceticism) , instead reinvesting it in their businesses to produce further profit.
- They prospered and came to see this as a sign of God's favour and their salvation.
62
Weber argued that Calvinist beliefs were only one of capitalism causes and that certain material or economic factors were necessary, for example:
Natural resources, trade, a money economy, towns, a legal system etc.
63
Why did capitalism did not take off in Hinduism?
It was an ascetic religion, and was other-worldly - directing followers towards the spiritual world.
64
Why did capitalism not take off in Confucianism?
An other-worldly religion, that directed its followers towards the material world, as it was not ascetic.
65
What was Bruce interested in?
The relationship between religion and social change.
66
Explain the American civil rights movement
The black civil rights movement of the 1950s/60s attempted to end racial segregation as blacks were denied legal and political rights in many Southern states.
67
Bruce sees religion as an ideological resource, define
Belief that protesters could draw on for motivation and legitimation.
68
How were religious organisations well equipped to support protests and contribute to change?
- Taking the moral high ground
- Channelling dissent
- Acting as honest broker
- Mobilising public opinion
69
Explain the New Christian Right (NCR)
A politically and morally conservative, Protestant fundamentalist movement, gaining prominence since the 1960s.
70
What are the aims of the NCR?
To make abortion, homosexuality and divorce illegal and take the USA 'back to God', turning the clock back to a time before the liberalisation of American society.
71
What do NCR believe in?
Traditional family and gender roles,campaigning for the teachings of 'creationism' and wants to ban sex education in schools.
72
How does NCR use televangelism?
Church-owned TV stations raise funds and broadcast programmes aimed at making converts.
73
Use an example to explain NCR
The Moral Majority, a right-wing Christian pressure group and part of the NCR, became the focus of political campaigning and for influencing the Republican Party.
74
Does Bruce see NCR as largely successful or unsuccessful?
Unsuccessful, because it has never had the support of more than 15% of the population at most.The democratic values of American society mean most Americans are comfortable with legalising activities such as abortion and homosexuality.
75
What do Marxists see religion as?
A conservative ideology - a set of ruling-class ideas that legitimate class inequalities.
76
Define the Marxist idea of relative autonomy
For example, religious ideas, can be partly independent of the capitalist economic base of society.
77
Define the Marxist idea of dual character
For example religion can sometimes be a force for change as well as stability.
78
Why does Bloch see religion as having a dual character?
Although religion inhibits social change, it can also inspire protest and rebellion.
79
Define the idea of 'the principle of hope'
Our dreams of a better life, containing images of utopia.
80
How can images of utopia deceive people?
Promises of rewards in heaven - but they may also help people to create a vision of a better world and strive for social change.
81
Explain the Liberation Theology (LT)
A movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1960s.
82
What are the characteristics of LT?
Strong commitment to the poor and opposition to the military dictatorship that then ruled most of the continent.
83
How did the LT emerge?
The growth of rural poverty and urban slums, throughout Latin America, and human rights abuses, following military takeovers.
84
Define the LT idea of 'praxis'
Practical action guided by theory.
85
What happened in the 1980s that the LT were involved in?
The Church's official attitude changed, the conservative Pope John Paul II condemning LT as being akin to Marxism, but the LT played a part in resisting dictatorship and bringing about democracy in Latin America.
86
Explain Millenarian Movements
They are an example of the desire to change things here and now, to bring about the kingdom of God on earth.
87
What does Worsley argue about Millenarian Movements?
They expect the total and imminent transformation of this world by supernatural means, creating heaven on earth.
88
Who do Millenarian Movements appeal to mostly?
The poor, because they promise immediate improvement, and the often arise in colonial situations.
89
What was the result of European colonialism?
It shattered the traditional tribal social structures and cultures of the colonised peoples.
90
Explain Worsleys study of the cargo cults
Millenarian Movements in Melanesia, where islanders felt deprived when 'cargo' arrived in the islands for the colonists. The cargo cults asserted that the cargo had been meant for the natives, but had been diverted by the whites for themselves, and that this was about to be overturned. These movements often led to widespread unrest.
91
What is Gramsci interested in?
How the ruling class maintain their control over society through ideas rather than simply through coercion (force).
92
Define hegemony
Ideological domination or leadership of society - is the way the ruling class are able to use ideas, such as religion, to maintain control.
93
How can religion challenge the ruling class?
It may help the working class to see through the ruling class hegemony and some clergy may act as organic intellectuals.
94
Define organic intellectuals
Leaders who can support working class organisations.
95
Explain Billings case study, in relation to Gramsci's
Class struggles communities of coalminers and textile workers, Kentucky in the 1920s and 1930s. Both were working class evangelical Protestant, but the miners were much more militant, struggling for better conditions.
96
What were the differences between Gramsci's and Billings' case studies?
The differences in levels of militancy, which can be understood in terms of hegemony and the role of religion. The miners benefited from the leadership of organic intellectuals - miners who were also lay preachers.
97
What was Crockett's estimate on Church attendance?
That in 1851, 40% or more of the adult population of Britain attended Church on Sundays, which lead some to claim that the 19th century was a 'golden age' of religiosity.
98
What does Wilson argue Western societies have been undergoing?
A long-term process of secularisation, where religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance.
99
What changes have taken place in the UK since the 19th century?
A fall in the proportion of the population attending Church, an increase in the average age of churchgoers, and greater religious diversity.
100
Explain church attendance today
- Only 6.3% of the adult population attended Church on Sundays in 2005, halving since the 1960s and likely to fall further.
- Very few children attend Sunday schools. Church weddings and baptisms are also declining.
- The English Church Census (2006) shows attendance at and membership of large religious organisations have declined - although participation in small religious organisations has increased.
101
Explain religious beliefs today
- More people claim they hold Christian beliefs than actually go to Church.
- Religious beliefs is declining, in line with the decline in Church attendance and membership.
- Gill et al's research showed a significant decline in belief in a personal God and in traditional teachings about the afterlife.
102
Explain religious institutions today
Bruce argues that evidence of secularisation has shown that "there is a steady and unremitting decline".
- The influence of religion as a social institution is declining.
- The state how now taken over many of the functions the Church used to perform.
- The number of clergy fell, while the population increased in size, reducing the Church's local, day-to-day influence.
103
Define and explain rationalisation as an explanation of secularisation
The process by which rational ways of thinking and acting replace religious ones. Weber argues that Western society has undergone a process of rationalisation in the last few centuries.
- In the 16th century, Protestant Reformation undermined the religious worldview of the Middle Ages, replacing t with a modern rational scientific outlook.
- The medieval Catholic worldview saw the world as an 'enchanted garden' in which God, angels etc, changed the course of events through their supernatural powers and miracle-working interventions.
104
Define disenchantment
The Protestant Reformation brought in a new worldview that saw God as existing above and outside the world, not as intervening in it. The world had disenchanted, left to run according to the laws of nature.
105
Explain the result of disenchantment
- Events were no longer explained as the work of unpredictable supernatural beings but as the predictable workings of natural forces.
- Through reason and science, humans could discover the laws of nature, and understand and predict how the world works - religious explanations of the world are no longer needed.
- This enables science to develop, giving humans more power to control nature, further undermining the religious worldview.
106
Define 'a technical worldview'
Bruce argues that a technical worldview has largely replaced religious explanations of why things happen. Religious worldviews only survive in areas where technology is least effective.
107
Define and explain structural differentiation as an explanation of secularisation
Parsons defines it as a process that occurs with industrialisation as many specialised institutions develop to carry out the different functions previously performed by a single institution.
- Religion denominated pre-industrial society, but with industrialisation it has become a smaller and more specialised institution.
- Bruce agrees that religion has become separate from wider society and privatised in the home and family - religious beliefs are now largely a matter of personal choice, while traditional rituals and symbols have lost meaning.
- Even where religion is involved in education or welfare, it must conform to secular controls.
- Churches and state are usually separate in modern society, so the Church loses political power.
108
Explain social and cultural diversity as an explanation of secularisation
- Wilson argues that in pre-industrial society, local communities shared religious rituals that expressed their shared values, but industrialisation destroys these stable local communities and so destroys religious base.
- Bruce sees industrialisation creating large, impersonal, loose-knit urban centres with diverse beliefs, values and lifestyles - this diversity undermines the believability of religion.
- The rise of individualism leads to a decline in community-based religious belief and practice.
109
Explain religious diversity as an explanation of secularisation
Argument put forward by Berger.
- In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church held an absolute monopoly and had no challengers.
- Since the 16th century Protestant Reformation, the number and variety of religious organisations has grown, each with different versions of the truth.
- Berger argues that this religious diversity undermines religion's 'plausibility structure' - its believability. Alternative versions of religion enable people to question all of them and this erodes the absolute certainties of traditional religion.
110
What does Bruce see as the most important cause of secularisation
The trend towards religious diversity, because it is difficult to live in a world containing large numbers of incompatible beliefs without concluding that none of them is wholly true.
111
Explain cultural defence and cultural transition as explanation of secularisation
Bruce identifies two counter-trends that seem to contradict the secularisation theory:
- Cultural defence, whereby religion provides a focal for the defence of national or ethnic group struggles against an external force.
- Cultural transition, whereby religion provides a sense of community for ethnic groups living in a different country and culture.
112
Define 'the spiritual revolution'
Traditional Christianity giving way to a New Age spirituality that emphasises personal development and experience.
113
What is meant by a growing 'spiritual market'?
There er huge number of books about self-help and spirituality and the many 'therapies', from meditation to crystal healing.
114
Heelas and Woodhead studied Kendal, why?
To investigate whether traditional religion has declined and how far the growth of spirituality is compensating for this. They distinguish between:
- The congregational domain ,of traditional and evangelical Christian churches.
- The holistic milieu, of spirituality and the New Age
115
What did Heelas and Woodhead find out?
- In a typical week in 2000, 7.9% of the population attended Church (the congregational domain) and 1.6% took part in spiritual activities (the holistic milieu).
- Within the congregational domain, the traditional Churches were loosing support, while evangelical Churches were holding their own. although fewer people were involved in the holistic milieu, it was growing.
116
How does Heelas and Woodhead explain their findings?
- New Age spirituality because of a massive 'subjective turn' in today's culture - a shift towards exploring your inner self by following a spiritual path.
- As a result, traditional religions, which demand duty and obedience, are declining.
- Evangelical Churches are more successful than the traditional Churches because they emphasie the subjective aspects: spiritual healing and the growth through the personal experience of being 'born again'.
- In the spiritual marketplace, therefore, the winners are those who appeal to personal experiences as the only genuine source of meaning and fulfillment, rather than the received teachings and commandments of traditional religion.
117
Explain secularisation in the USA
Wilson found that 45% of Americans attended Church on Sundays, but this was more an expression of the "American way of life", than of religious beliefs. Wilson argues that America is a secular society, because religion there has become superficial.
118
Bruce uses three sources of evidence to support the claim that America is becoming increasingly secular. What are they?
1. Declining Church attendence
2. Secularisation from within
3. Religious diversity and relativism
119
What is meant by 'declining Church attendance' in relation to secularisation in the USA?
Evidence suggests that this tenancy to exaggerate churchgoing is a recent development.
120
What is meant by 'secularisation from within' in relation to secularisation in the USA?
Bruce argues that in America, the emphasis on traditional Christian beliefs and glorifying God has declined. Instead, religion has become 'psychologised' - a form of therapy. In America, religion has remained popular, by becoming less religious as its purpose has changed.
121
What is meant by 'religious diversity and relativism' in relation to secularisation in the USA?
Bruce identifies 'practical relativism' among American Christians - accepting that others are entitled to hold beliefs different to ones own. Now, absolutism has been eroded, we now live in a society where many people hold views that are completely different to ours, undermining our assumption that our own views are absolutely true.
122
Do some sociologists argue that religion is changing or declining?
Changing, as a result of changes in wider society, such as greater individualism and consumerism, or a shift from modern to late modern or postmodern society. Grace Davie (2007) argues that religion is becoming more privatised.
123
Why do people no longer attend church?
They no longer feel they have to. Churchgoing has declined although, because attendance is now a matter of personal choice rather than an obligation.
124
What does 'believing without belonging' mean?
People hold religious beliefs but don't go to Church. So, the decline of religion is matched by the growth of a new form of religion.
125
What does 'vicarious religion' mean?
Where a small number of professional clergy practice religion on behalf of a much larger number of people.
126
What do people use the Church for?
Despite low attendance, many people still use the Church for rites of passage - baptism, weddings and funerals.
127
Davie argues that there are 'multiple modernities', what is this?
For example, Britain and America are both modern societies, but with very different patterns of religion - high Church attendance in America, low in Britain, but accompanied by believing without belonging.
128
What does 'cultural amnesia' mean?
A loss of collective memory. People have lost the religion that used to be handed down from generation to generation through family and Church.
129
How has greater equality undermined the traditional Church's power to impose religion from above?
Young people no longer inherit a fixed religious identity.
130
How is religion growing through individual consumerism?
People have become spiritual shoppers. Religion is now individualised - we now develop our own 'do-it-yourself' beliefs.
131
According to Hervieu-Leger, which two types of religion are emerging?
Pilgrims - follow an individual path in a search for self-discovery.
Converts - join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging. This re-creates a sense of community.
132
What does Lyon (2000) argues that postmodern society has several features that are changing the nature of religion, what are they?
Globalisation, which has increased the importance of the media and consumerism. As a result, traditional religion is giving way to new religious forms and these demonstrate its continuing strength.
133
What does 'relocation of religion' mean?
The idea that, as a result of globalisation, there is increased movement of religious ideas across boundaries.
134
Explain the link between media and religion
The media now saturates us with images and messages from around the globe, giving us instant access to the ideas and beliefs of previously remote religions. These idea are 'disembedded' as the media lift them out for their local contexts and move them to a different place and time. Therefore, religion becomes de-institutionalised.
135
What does 'religious consumerism' mean?
Postmodern society involves the idea that we now construct our identities through what we consume.
136
What does 'spiritual shoppers' mean?
Choosing religious beliefs and practices to meet our individual needs, from the vast range on offer in the religious marketplace. We can pick elements of different faiths to suit our tastes and make them part of our identity.
137
What does 'sphere of consumption' mean?
People may have ceased to belong to religious organisations, but have not abandoned religion.
138
What does 'religious consumers' mean?
Making conscious choices about which elements of religion they find useful.
139
What does 're-enchantment of the world' mean?
The growth of unconventional beliefs and practices.
