Behavioral Science Flashcards
Who developed the doctrin of phrenology and what were the three contributions?
- well-developed trait, that part of the brain would expand and cause a buldge in head
- Measure psychological attributes by feeling the skull
- generate research on brain function
Franz Gall
Who was the first person to study the five functions of the brain and what was the one method he used?
Pierre Flourens
Exturpation (abalation) where various parts of the brain are removed and the consequences are observed. (specfic parts of brain have specific functions)
What was the one foundation William James formed and what does it study?
Functionalism: how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
What concept did John Dewey criticize and what was the one main belief?
Criticized the concept of reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts
Psychology should focus on the study of organisms as a whole as they adapt to environment
What was Paul Broca’s two main contributions?
- Person to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions.
- Found lesion in specific area of left brain and man was unable to speak, led to this area being called Broca’s lesion
What were the three main contributions from Hermann Von Helmholtz?
- first to measure the speed of a nerve impusle
- Related measured speed of inpulse to reaction time, providing a link between behavior and nervous system activity
- Transitions psychology out of realm of philosophy into natural science
What were Sir Charles Sherrington’s two contributions and which one was disproven?
- First inferred the existence of synapses
- Though synaptic transmission was an electrical process, but a chemical process
What are the two purposes of the meninges?
- Protect brain by keeping it anchored to the skull
- Resorb cerebrospinal fluid
What are the three layers of the meninges? (List in order from bone to brain)
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid Mater
- Pia Mater
What two brain structures form the brain stem?
Hindbrain and Midbrain
What are the five structures of the Forebrain (prosencephalon) and their functions?
- Cerebal Cortex: perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
- Basal Ganglia: Movement
- Limbic System: Emotion and Memory
- Thalamus System: Sensory relay station except smell
- Hypothalamus: endocrine system, autonomic system, maintain homeostasis
What are the four divisions in the Hindbrain?
- Cerebellum: refined motor movements
- Medulla oblongata: heart, vital reflexes
- Reticular formation: Arousal and alertness
- Pons: Communciation within the brain (contains sensory/motor pathways between medulla and cortex), breathing
What are the two divisions in the Midbrain (mesencephalon)? Function?
- Inferior: receive sensory info from auditory system
- Superior: receive visual sensory input
During embryonic development, what are the two structures the hindbrain(rhombencephalon) divide into? What do these structures become?
- Mylencephalon: becomes the medulla oblongata
- Metencephalon: becomes the pons and cerebellum
During prenatal development, what are the two structures the presencephalon divide into? What do they form? One forms three structures and other forms 4
- Telencephalon: form cerebral cortex, basala ganglia, limbic system)
- Diencephalon: form thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland)
What is the main purpose of an electroencephalogram?
To study the electrical activity generated by large groups of neurons
What does regional cerebral blood flow measure? How? And what assumption does it make?
- Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of brain. Use fMRI
- Assumes blood flow increases to regions of the breain that engage in cognitive function
What is a PET scan and what does it use?
It uses radioactive sugar and injects it into body. Uptake and dispersion in target tissue is observed
What are the three subdivisions of the hypothalamus and functions?
- Lateral Hypothalamus: Trigger eating a drinking
- Ventromedial hypothalamus: Provides signal to stop eating
- Anterior hypothalamus: control sexual behavior, sleep, body temp
What sends signal to posterior pituitary? What are the two hormones released?
Has axonal projections from the hypothalamus and releases Vasopressin and oxytocin
Where does the pineal gland receive its signals from and what does it regulate?
Receives direct signals from the retina and secretes melatonin to regulate sleep
What is the extrapyramidal system?
Gathers info about the body’s position and carries this info to the CNS
What are the 6 components of the Limbic system? Functions?
- Septal Nuclei: Pleasure center
- Amygdala: Attention/fear, help interpret facial expressionas, part of instrinsic memory for emotional memory
- Hipocampus: role in learning and memory processes. Form long-term explicit/epidsodic memories
- Prefrontal cortex: planning, expressing personality, making decisions (ventral media cortex: experiecing emotion/ventromedial preforntal cortex: controlling emotional responses from the amygdala to decision making)
- Thalamus: sensory processing
- Hypothalamus: release neuotrasmitters that affect mood and arousal
How does the hippocampus communicate with other portions of the limbic system?
Fornix
What is the main difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
- Anterograde: not able to form new long-term memories
- Retrograde: Memory loss before injury
What are the four lobes of brain? Function?

- Frontal Lobe (blue)
- Parietal Lobe (pink)
- Occipital Lobe (purple)
- Temporal Lobe (green)
What is the main function of the prefrontal cortex? What does it communicate with?
- Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
- Communicates with reticular formation in the brainstem
Which part of the frontal cortex is associated with association area and which is associated with projection area?
Association Area: prefrontal
Projection Area: primary motor
What is the difference between association area and projection areas?
Association area is an area that integrates input from diverse regions of brain
Projection area preforms rudimentart perceptual and motor tasks
What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex?
Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord towards the muscles
Where is the somatosensory cortex located and what are the four types of signals it processes?
- Located in pareital lobe on the post central gyrus
- Area for incoming/processing sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
What is the main cortex within the occipital cortex?
Visual cortex (striate cortex)
What are the three regions/functions of the temporal lobe?
- Auditory cortex: sound processing, speech
- Wernicke’s area: language reception and comprehension
- Memory processing, emotion
How is the dominant hemisphere defined?
One that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production?
What is the main difference between the dominant and nondominant hemisphere?
Dominant: more analytical/logic/language
nondominant: emotions, faces, spatial processing, creativity, music cognition
What is the one difference between ipsilaterally and contralaterally?
ipsilaterally: same side
contralaterally: opposite side
What are the three catecholamines?
- Epinephrine
- norepinephrine
- dopamine
What is the main difference between neuromodulators and neurotransmitters?
Neuromodulators are slow and longer effects on postsynaptic cells than neurotransmitters
What is an endorphin?
A neuromodulator that is a natural pain killer
What connects the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland?
Hypophyseal portal system
What are the two parts of the adrenal gland and their functions?
- Adrenal medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Adrenal cortex: produces corticosteroids, such as cortisol. Produce testosterone and estrogen
What are the two parts of the pituitary gland and which one releases hormones?
- Anterior and posterior
- Anterior
Define condordance rates in twin studies
Likelihood that bother twins exhibit the same trait
What does the development of the nervous system start with?
Neurulation
What are the two structures within the Neural tube?
- Alar plate: differentiates into sensory neurons
- Basal plate: differenitates into motor neurons
What are the four primitive reflexes and corresponding behavior?
- Rooting: turns head towards direction of any objects touching the cheek
- Moro: in response to sudden head movement, arms extent and slowly retract, baby cries
- Babinski: extension of big tow and fanning of other toes in response to brushing the sole of foot
- Grasping: holding onto any object placed in hand
What are the two themes of the stages of motor development?
- gross motor development progress in a head-to-toe fashion
- Skills develope at the core prior to extremities
What two hormones are produced by the adrenal glands?
estrogen and testosterone
What is the neural groove surrounded by and what are the two structures that arise from the neural groove?
- Neural folds
- Neural crest and neural tube
What is the one difference between distal stimuli and proximal stimuli?
Distal are the physical objects and proximal are the sensory stimulating byproducts that directly interact with sensory receptors
What are two characteristics of ganglia?
- Collection of neuron cell bodies
- Found outside the CNS
Define subliminal perception
Infor received by CNS that does not cross threshold
What are the three observations of Weber’s Law?
- Difference threshold are proportional
- Difference thresholds must be computed as percentages
- proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli
What is the one concept Signal Detection Theory studies?
how internal (psychological) and external (environmental) factors influence thresholds for perception and sensation
allows us to look at response bias
What is the five step pathway for stimulus to reach conscious perception?
- Sensory receptor
- Afferent neuron
- Sensory Ganglion
- Spinal Cord
- Brain (projection area)
What is the one difference between noise trails and catch trials?
Noise: signal presented
Catch: no signal presented
What are the 4 possible outcomes for a signal detection experiment trial?
- Hit: Signal presented–> “Yes”
- Miss: Signal presented –> “No”
- False Alarm: Signal Absent—> “Yes”
- Correct Negative: Signal Absent–> “No”
What are the two types of vessels that supply the eye with nutrients?
- Choroidal Vessels: intermingling of blood vessels between the sclera and retina
- Retinal Vessels
What are the two purposes of the cornea?
- light passes through
- gathers/focuses the incoming light
What are the two chambers of the eye?
- Anterior: in front of the iris
- Posterior: btw the iris and lens
What are the two muscles of the iris?
- Dilator pupillae
- Constrictor pupillae
What are three characteristics of the choroid?
- continuous with iris
- vascular layer of connective tissue
- provides nutrishment to retina
What are the two structures that are continuous with the iris?
- Choroid
- Ciliary body
What is the one function of the ciliary body?
1.Produces the aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye
Where does the aquerous humor drain into?
canal of schlemn
What is the primary function of the sclera (white of eye)?
provides structural support
What two events happen with the ciliary muscles contract?
- Pulls the suspensory ligaments
- Change shape of the lens to focus on an image (accommadation)
What is the transparent gel that supports the retina and lies behind the lens?
Vitreous Humor
What does the duplexity theory of vision state?
retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors:
- light-and-dark detection: rod
- specialized color detection: cones
What are three difference between cons and rods?
- Cones are more effective in bright color and come in three forms (short, medium, long), rods have reduced illumination
- rods are more functional than cones because each rod is highly sensitive to photons and easier to stimulate
- rods are not good at detecting fine detail because spread over larger area of retina
What is the one pigment that all rods contain?
rhodopsin
What is the central section of the retina called? Does it have a high concentration of cones or rods?
macula
cones
What is the center most region of the macula called? How does the concentration of cones and rods change as you expand out from fovea?
fovea
concentration of cones decreases, rods decrease
What are the 11 steps in the visual pathway for light from the cornea to the brain?
- Cornea
- Pupil
- Len
- Vitreous
- retina (bipolar cells –>ganglion cells)
- optic nerve
- optic chiasm
8: optic tract - LGN
- radiation through temporal and pariental lobes
- visual cortex
What is one reason why color vision has greater sensitivity to fine detal than balck-and-white vision does?
the number of cones converging onto ganglion cells is smaller than for rods
What are two purposes of the amacrine and horizontal cells?
- receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area through bipolar cells before passed to ganglion cells
- increase our perception of contrast/edge detection because they can accentuate slight differences btw visual info from each bipolar cell
What is the optic chiasm? Purpose?
- fibers from the nasal half of each retina cross paths. the temporal fibers do not cross
- All fibers corresponding to right visual field from both eyes go to the left side of brain vise versa
What is the pathway called after the optic chiasm?
optic tracts: reorganized pathwat after optic chiasm
What is one function of the superior colliculus in vision?
controls some reflexive response to visual stimuli and reflex eye movt
What are two characteristics of parvocellular cells in LGN?
- high spatial resolution: detect fine detail when examining an object/its boundaries (form)
- low temporal resolution: can only work with stationary or slow moving objects
What are the three characteristics of magnocellular cells in LGN?
- high temporal resolution (detect motion)
- receive info from periphery of vision
- low spatial resolution
What is the primary purpose of binocular neurons?
responsible for comparing the inputs from both eyes/hemispheres and detecting differences –> detect depth
what is the primary purpose of feature detectors in visual cortex?
detect specific feature/associate dertain patterns with expected behavior/outcomes (store info)–> all act in parallel
What is the main function of the pinna/auricle?
to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal
What is the main purpose of the external auditory canal?
directs sound waves into the tympanic membrane
What are the three smallest bones in the body and where are they located?
- ossicle
- in the middle ear
How is the middle ear connected to the inner ear? Purpose of structure?
eustachain tube: equalize pressure between the middle ear and environment
What 2 traits of the membranous labyrinth?
- receptors that sense equilibrium and hearing
- has potassium rich fluid (endolymph)
What are the two purposes of the perilymph?
- transmits vibrations from outside world
- Cushions the inner ear
The two traits of the round window?
- membrane covered hole in the cochlea
- permits the perilymph to move within the cochlea
What are the two structures in the vestibule in bony labyrinth? Functions?
- utricle and saccule (contain modified hair cells called otoliths)
- sensitive to linear acceleration–> used as a balancing apparatus and to determine orientation
What is sensitive to rotational acceleration? How are they structured?
- three semi-circular canals
- arranged perpendiculary to each other and each ends in a swelling called an ampulla (where hair cells are located)
What are the structures/order of the auditory pathway?
- Pinna
- External auditory canal
- tympanic membrane
- Malleus
- incus
- stapes
- oval window
- perilymph in cochlea
- basilar membrane
- hair cells
- Vestibulocohlear
- brainstem
- MGN
- auditory cortex (temporal lobe)/superior olive (localizes sound)/ inferior colliculus (startle reflex and helps keep eyes fixed)
How is the basilar membrane organized?
highest freq pitch cause it to vibrate close to oval window
low freq pitch cause vibrations at the apex
(tonotopically organized)
What is the 6 step pathway of the olfactory pathway?
- Nostril
- Nasal Cavity
- olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves) on olfactory epithelium
- olfactory bulb
- olfactory tract
- higher-order brain regions (limbic system)
Where are tastebuds found?
papillae
What are the 4 different modalities of somatosensation?
- pressure
- vibration
- pain
- tempature
What are the five different receptors of somatosensation in dermis?
- Pacinian corpuscles: respond to deep pressure and vibration
- Meissner corpuscles: respond to light touch
- Merkel cells: respond to deep pressure and texture
- Ruffini endings: respond to stretch
- Free nerve endings: respond to pain and temp
Define two-point threshold
refers to the minimum distance necessary btw two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
(depends on density of nerves)
Define physiological zero?
the normal temp of skin
Define the gate theory of pain?
gating mechanism can turn pain signals on and off, affecting wether or not we perceive pain
Define kinesthetic sense (proprioception). Where are proprioceptors mostly found?
- the ability to tell where one’s body is in space
- muscle and joints (hand-eye coordination/balance/mobility)
What is the difference between Bottom-up and Top-down processing?
Top-Down is driven by memories and expectations that allow brain to recognize the object and its components. Start with whole object and through memories, create expectations for the features of the object
Bottom-Up refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection, then integrated into one whole image
What are the two visual cues depth perception relies on?
Monocular: only require one eye
Binocular cues: require both eyes
What are the four main factors that make up monocular cues?
- Relative size: objects appear larger the closer they are
- Interposition: when two objects overlap, the one in front is closer
- Linear perspective: the convergence of parallel lines at a distance… the greater the convergence, the further they are
- Motion parallas: the objects closer to use seem to move faster when we look somewhere else
What are the two factors that make up binocular cues?
- Retinal disparity: the slight differences in image projects on the two retinas
- Convergence: the brain detects the angle between the two eyes required to bring an object into focus–> the difference in the degree of convergence is used to perceive distance
Define constancy?
the ability to perceive that certain characteristics of an object remain the same, despite changes in environment
What are the 6 Gestalt principles?
- Law of proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
- law of similarity: objects that ar similar appear to be grouped together
- law of good continuation: elements that appear to follow the sma pathway tend to be group together
- Subjective contours: the perception of nonexistent edges in figures, based on surrounding visual cues
- law of closure: when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line
- law of prägnaz: perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible
all allow the brain to infer missing parts of a picture
What three structures support the eye?
Inside: Virteous
Outside: sclera and choroid
What three structures make up the outer ear?
- Pinna
- external auditory canal
- Tympanic membrane
How is the middle ear connects to the nasal cavity?
Eustachian tube
What are the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth filled with?
bony labyrinth: perilymph
membranous labyrinth: endolymph
Define dishabituation?
recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation
What is generalization and what is the opposite of generalization?
- Stimuli similar to each other will ellicit similar reponse
- Discrimination
What are the two categories negative reinforcement can be divided into?
- Escape Learning: experience unpleasant stimulus and display desired behavior to remove stimulus
- Avoidance Learning: show desired behavior in anticipation of the unpleasant stimulus to avoid unpleasant stimulus
What is the differene between primary reinforcer, secondary reinforcer. discriminative stimulus?
- Primary: reinforcer respond to naturally
- Secondary: conditioned reinforcer
- indicate reward is potentially available
Ex: Dolphin and trainer
What is another name for positive punishment?
aversive conditioning
Which reinforcement schedule works the fastest and is most resistent to extinction?
variable-ratio
What is shaping?
process odf rewarding increasingly specific behaviors that become closer to a disired response
Define latent learning? What is an example?
learning that occurs without the reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Ex: rats that were carried through maze and then incentivized with food reward for completeing it preformed just as well as the rats that ran through the maze using operate conditioning
What is preparedness?
Animals are able to learn behavior that coincide with their natural behaviors
What is instictive drift?
when animals revert to their instinctive behavior after learning a new behavior that is similar
What are mirror neurons and where are they located?
- involved in motor processes/epathy and cicarious emotions
- play a role in imitative learning
- located in frontal and parietal lobes
What is encoding?
putting new info into memory
What is the difference between autonomic processing and controlled processing?
Autonomic: info gained without any effort
controlled: active memorization
What are the four different types of encoding?
- Acoustic
- Visual
- Elaborative: link to knoledge that is already in memory
- Semantic: put into a meaningful context (self-reference effect)
What is Mnemonic and what are three examples?
memorize info (particulary lists)
- method of loci: associating item in a list with a location
- peg-word: associate numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the number
- chuncking: taking elements from a list and grouping them together
Define sensory memory and what are the two subgroups? Is it short term memory yet?
preserve info in sensory form/high accuracy but lasts short amount of time
- iconic memory: fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli
- echoic memory: fast decay memory of auditory stimuli
ex: this is tested in partial report procedures
NO
How can the capcaity of short term memory be increased?
- clustering
- maintenance rehearsal
What is our memory capacity?
the number of items we can hold in our short-term memory
around 7 items
Where is short-term memory housed?
hippocampus –> consolidation of short term to long term memory
What is working memory?
Allows us to keep a few peices of info in our consciounesness simultaneously and to manipulate that info. Must integrate short-term memory, attention and executive function
How is long-term memory consolidated?
elaborative rehearsal –> tied to self-reference and is controlled by hippocampus but are mvoed overtime to cerebral cortex
What are the two types of long-term memory?
- Implicit memory (non-declarative memory): consists of our skills, habits, and conditioned reponses. Includes procedural memory, which is our unconscious memory of skills required for a task, and priming. which is the presentation of a stimulus which will impact the perception of another
- Explicit memory (declarative memory): require conscious recall. Include episodic memory (recollection of life experiences) and semantic memory (ideas, concepts, and facts that we know but are not tied to life experiences)
What is autobiographic memory? What type of long-term memory is it?
are explicit memories of our lives and include all of our episodic memories of our life experiences
What is the difference between negative and positive priming?
positive: exposure to stimulus improves the processing of second stimulus
negative: first stimulis interfers with processing of second
What is the spacing effect?
longer amount of time between sessions of relearning, leads to greater retention of info
How is semantic network, spreading activation, and positive priming related?
Our brain is organized into a semantic network (organized by similar meaning). When one node of semantic network is activated other linked concepts are unconciously activated (spreading activation). Like positive primary, you are exposed to a recall cue.
What is the context effect?
memory is aided by being in a physical location when encoding took place
What is source monitoring?
determining the origin of memories, and whether they are factual or fiction (dream)
What is state-dependent memories/state-depedent effect?
retrieval cue based on preforming better when in the same mental state when encoded
What is serial-position effect? And what are its two components?
item’s position in list affect ability to recall
- primacy effect: first items
- recency effect: last items–> hard to recall later on, might have been able to retrieve initially bc were stuck in short-term memory
What is sundowning?
increase dysfunction for Alzheimer patients in late afternoon and evening
What are four traits of Korsakoff’s syndrome?
- retrograde amnesia
- anterograde amnesia
- thiamine deficiency in brain
- confabulation:creating vivid and fabricated memories
What is agnosia?
loss of the ability to recognize objectsw, people, or sounds from primarly physical damage to brain
What is a common reason for memory loss? What are it’s two subdivisions?
Interference: retrieval error caused by similar info
- Active interference: old info is interfering with new
- Retroactive interference: new info cause forgetting of old info
1.
What is the misinformation effect and how does it influence reproductive memory?
recall of a person’s memory becomes less accurate when inject outside info into memory
What are two errors that occur to cause reconstructive memory?
- Intrusion error: false memories that have included a false detail into a particular memory. Instrusion is from another memory that is very similar to original memory because they share a theme.
- Source-monitoring error: confusion between semantic and episodic memory. Person remembers the details of an event, but confused the context under which those details were gained.
What are three modes to encode info and list them from strongest to weakest?
- Semantic
- acoustic
- visual
What is the difference between maitenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
- Maintenance is repetition of info to keep in short-terp and elaborative is association of info to other stored knowledge and more effective to store short term as long term
How are facts stored and how are they retrieved
- semantic network
- priming
What is the difference btw synaptic pruning and LTP?
- weak neural connections are broken in synaptic pruning
- strengthing memory of connection through increase activity (LTP)
What is dual-coding theory?
both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information
What are the 4 key points of the information processing model?
- thinking requires sensation–>encoding–>storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision making
- Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
- problem solving is dependent on a person’s cognitive level, and context/complexity of problem
How does Paiget theorize new info is processed? What are two complementary processes?
- Adaptation
- Assimalation: putting new info into existing schema
- Accommodation: existing schema are modified to encompass new info
What are the 4 stages of Paiget’s stages of cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor stage (birth to 20: child learns to manipulate his or her environment to meet physical needs and learns to coordinate sensory input with motor actions. Ends with object permanance
- Preoperation stage (2-7): symbolic thinking(ability to pretend, have an imagination) and egocentrism (inability to imagine what another person is thinking or feeling). Lack conservation(amount remains the same even if there is a change in shape or appearence)
- Concrete operational stage (7-11): children can understand conservation and perspectives of others/ engage in logical thought
- Fromal operational stage (starts at 11): think logically about abstract things/ reason about abstract concepts and problem solve. Hypothetical reasoning: mentally manipulate variables)
What are two types of behavior in sensorimotor stage abnd what ends the sensorimotor stage?
- Exhibit primary circular reactions (repetitions of body movement that orginally occured by chance)
- secondary circular reactions (manipulation is focused on somthing outside the body).
Object permanence ends this stage because they begin to understand that objects continue to exists even when out of view. This marks the beginning of representational though (child begins to creat mental representations of external objects and events)
What falw in cognition may cause the lack of conservation?
centration: tendency to focu on only one aspect and ignore other important elements
What was Lev Vygotsky’s many theory?
a child’s internalization of his or her culture drives cognitive development
What are the two sub categories intellengence can be divided into?
- FLuid intelligenceL: solving new problems using creative methods
(peak in adult hood and decline with age)
- CrystallizedL: solving problems using acquired knowledge and can be procedural (peak in middle adulthood and remains stable with age)
What is delirium?
confused thinking, reduced awareness
What is the difference between deductibe reasoning (top-down) and inductive reasoning (bottum-up)
- Deductive: starts with rules and draw conclusions from info given (ex: logic puzzels)
- Inductive: create a theory via generalization (start with specific instances and draw conclusions)
What are heuristics and what are the two branched?
simplified principles to make decisions (“rules of thumb”)
- Availability heuristic: base likelihood of an event on how easily examples of event come to bind (are there more works in english that start or end with k?
- Representativeness heuristic: categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
What is base rate fallacy? What can lead to this?
using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actualy numerical information–> heuristics can lead to this?
Define disconfirmation principle?
evidence obtained from testing shows the solution does not work?
What is conformation bias and what three things can this lead to?
- tendency to focus on information that fits a belief, while rejecting information that goes against it
- This contributes to overconfidence” tendecy to wrongly interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
- Hindsight bias: tendecy for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened
- Belief perseverence: inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence against it
What is functional fixedness?
the tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem solving
What is a mental set?
pattern to approach a given problem
What is intuition and how does it relate to recognition-primed decision model?
- the ability to act on perceptions that may not be suported by evidence
- Through the use of acquired knowledge sort through info to match a pattern
What are the eight defined types of intelligence in the theory of multiple intelligence?
- linguistic
- logical-methematical
- musicle
- visual-spatial
- bodily-kinesthetic
- interpersonal: ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of other
- intrapersonal: mindful of one’s own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses
- naturalists
What are the three subtypes of Sternberg’s triarchic theory?
- Analytical intelligence: ability to evaluate and reason
- creative intelligence: ability to solve problems using novel methods
- practical intelligence: dealing with everyday problems at home/work
What are the four components of emotional intellegence?
- ability to express and perceive emotions in ourself and others
- ability to comprehend and anaylze our emotions
- ability to regulate our emotions
- awareness of hor emotions shape our thoughts and decisions
How is alertness maintained?
the prefrontal cortex communicates with the reticular formation (a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep cortex awake and alert
What are the three difference between beta and alpha wave?
- beta are high freq and alpha are slower
- beta occur when a person is alert or attending a task that requires concetration. Alpha occur when a person is awake but relaxing with eyes closed
- Beta are more randomly firing and alpha are more synchronized
What are the six stages of sleep-wake cycle?
- Awake: beta and alpha waves
- Stage 1: NREM1: theta waves (irregular wave forms with slow freq and high voltages)–> light sleeping and dozing
- Stage 2: NREM2: theta waves with sleep spindles (bursts of high freq waves) and K complexes (singular high-amplitude waves)
- Stage 3:NREM3: known as slow-wave sleep–> delta waves (low freq but high voltage waves) –> dreams, declarative memory consolidation, sleep-wake disorders occur here
- Stage 4: delta, slow-wave sleep, dreams, declarative memory consolidation, sleep-wake disorders occur here
- REM (Paradoxical sleep): mostly beta wave, ones heart rate, breathing patterns, EEG mimic wakefullness –> dreaming most likely to occur, procedural memory consolidation, body is paralyzed
Besides melatonin being released from the pineal gland, what other hormone is involved in the sleep-wake cycle?
cortisol–> steroid hormone released from adrenal cortex and increases in the morning
increasing light increases the release of CRF from hypothalmus and causes the release of ACTH from anterior pituitary gland which stimulated cortisol release
What is the activation-synthesis theory?
dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry. This activation can mimic incoming sensory info and consist of sotred memories, desires, needs, experiences. Cortext stitches this unrelated info together to form a dream
What is the problem-solving dream theory?
dreams are a way to solve problems while sleeping. Dreams do not need to follow rules so can interpret obstacles differently
What is cognitive process dream theory?
dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness
What does the neurocognitive models of dreaming try to do?
unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes. unify mind and brain
What is the difference between dyssomnias and parasomnias?
dyssomnias: disorders that make it difficult to sleep
parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
What are the symptoms of narcolepsy called?
cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
What are hyponagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations?
hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
What is another name for sleepwalking?
somnambulism
What is one thing that happens to sleep cycle after sleep deprivation?
exhibit REM rebound, earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep
What type of sleep waves are shown during …
Night terrors
meditation
- slow-wave sleep
- stage 1 with theta and slow alpha waves
What are four events that happen when someone drink’s alcohol?
- increase activity of GABAR, hyperpolarization
- disinhibition
- increase dopamine levels
- Alcohol myopia: inability to recognize consequences of actions
What are two types of sedatives?
- Barbiturates: anxiety-reducing and sleep medications
- Benzodiazepines: less prone to overdose than barbiturates
both increase GABA (increase relaxation)–> additive
What are 4 characteristics of amphetamines?
- increase release of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin
decrease reuptake
- increase in arousal and reduction in appetite/need for sleep
- increase in HR and BP
What do opiods cause?
Can cause respiratory depression because bind to opiod receptors in PNS and CNS and act as endorphin agonists, casuing a decreased reaction to pain and sense of euphoria
What are the three effects of marijuana?
1.Stimulant, depressant, hallucinogen
(increase dopamine activity, decrease GABA activity)
What is one dopaminergic pathway associated with drug addiction?
mesolimbic reqward pathway: includes NAc, ventral tegmental areas (VTA), connect between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB)–> reward pathway to encourage positive reinforcment
What is a dichotic listening test and what does it test?
stimuli is going to both ears and they are ask to repeat what they heard in attended ear through shadowing
this testins for selective attention
What is the difference between selective and divided attention?
Selective attention: filter permits us to focus on one set of stimuli while scanning other stimuli in the background (cocktail party effect)
Divided attention: ability to rpeform multiple tasks at the same time. New complec tasks require controlled (effortful) processing–> maintain undivided attention on task and autonomic processing –> used for less critical stimuli in divided attention and is used for familiar and repetitive actions
What is phonology?
sound of language
What is categorical perception?
language has subtle difference in speech that represent a change in meaning
What is constancy?
ability to recognize a word as being the same even if the pronunciations varies
What is Morphology?
the structure of words. words are composed of morphemes
What does semantics refer to?
association of meaning with word
What is syntax?
how words are put together to form sentences
What does pragmatics?
dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge (prosdy: the inflection in your voice)/ the way you speak to different audiences
What is naming explosion and when does it usually start?
the child quickly learns dozens of words and uses each word with varying inflections and gestures
starts around 18 months
What is overextension and what is it usually paired with?
- a child inappropriately apply a term to an object thats bears similarities to the term
- paried with naming explosion
What is errors of growth and when does it usually begin?
- a child applies a grammatical rule of grammar where it does not apply
- begins around 2-3 years
What are four points that the nativist (biological) theory argue?
- innate capacity for language
- transformation grammar (changes in word order that retain the same meaning) happens effortlessly
- innate ability is called language acquisition device (LAD) (a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules)
- critical period of language acquisition is btw 2yr-pubertyn and if no exposure occurs during this time it is hard to train later
Chomsky
How is the sensitive period different from critical period?
- time when environmental input has max effect on language development
- learning language beyond this time is not impossible
What are three points of the learning (behaviorist) theory?
- language acquisition through reinforcement/operant conditioning
- parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents
- but theory cannot fully explain explosion in vocab that occurs in early childhood
Skinner
What are two points to the interactionist theory?
- language development focuses on the interplay btw biological and social processes
- language acquisition is driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave in social manner
What is the Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity hypothesis)?
our perception of reality is determined by the content of language (language affects the way we think
-expansive framework with more specific voab allows for more sophisticated processing
What are the two regions that are responsible for speech production and language? What hemisphere are they located in?
Broca’s area (inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe): controls motor function of speech with connections to motor cortex
Wernicke’s area (superior temporay gyrus of the temporal): responsible for language comprehension
left hemisphere
How are Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area connected?
arcuate fasciculus: bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
What is aphasia? What are the three types?
is a deficit of language production or comprehension
- Broca’s (expressive) aphasia: have speech comprehension but reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language. generating each word requires effort/difficulty producing language
- Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia; comprehension is lost but motor production and fluency of speech is retained (nonsesical sounds)
- conduction aphasia: if the arcuate fasciculus is affected (patient is unable to repeat something that has been said bc the connection btw these regions is lost). intact speach production and comprehension
What are the five milestones of language development?
- 9-12 months: babbling
- 12-18 months; increase of one word per month
- 18-20 months: “explosion of language” and combining words (two word sentences)
- 2-3 years: longer sentences of three or more words
- 5 years: language rules largely mastered
What is the difference between entrinsic and intrinsic motivation?
- entrinsic: working hard for a desired reward or to avioid punishment
- intrinsic: comes from within one’s self that is driven by interest or enjoyment
What is the primary idea of instinct theory?
certain behaviors are based on evolutionary programmed instincts
What is the main idea of arousal theory? What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
- people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal –> seeking to inccrease arousal when it falls
- The law postualtes a U shaped function between the level of arousal and performance (performance is worse at extremely high and low levels of arousal)
What is the difference between primary drives and secondary drives?
- Primary drives: need for food, water, warmth to ensure homeostasis
- Secondary drives: not directly realted to biological functions. The drive to succeed
What is the drive reduction theory?
Explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
Drives: internal states of tension or discomfort that can be relieved with an action
What are the five main themes of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
(Bases of pyriamid)Physiological needs –> safety–> love/belonging –> esteem–> self actualization (morality/problem solving/ realize one’s fullest potential)
-need to satisfy lowest needs to meet higher ones
What is the main idea of self-determination theory?
emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy; the needs to be in control of one’s actions and ideas; competence; the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks; and relatedness, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relatioships
What is the main idea of Expectancy-value theory?
the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectations of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal
What is two main ideas of opponent-process theory?
-when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology
(counteract a depressant like alcohol through arousal)
-can lead to withdraw and tolerance–> decrease in perceived effect of drug overtime
What is the main idea of incentive theory?
motivation as the desire to purseu rewards and avoid punishments
What are the three elements to emotion?
1, Physiological response: arousal leads to stimulation of autonomic nervous system
- Behavioral response:facial expressions/body language
- Cognitive response: subjective interpretation of feeling, subjective interpretation, memories of past experiences, perception of causes of emotions
What are the seven universal emotions?
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Contempt
- Surprise
- Fear
- Disgust
- Anger
What is emotional memory and what does it refer to?
refers to the unconscious implicit meory and is the storage of feelings of emotion associated with an event
when experiencing a similar event later one will retrieve those emotions (related to PTSD)
What are the two divisions of the prefrontal cortex?
- Dorsal prefrontal cortex: associated wiith attention and cognition
- ventral prefrontal cortex: connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion
What is cognitive appraisal and what are its two stages?
It is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress
- Primary appraisal: intial evaluation of the environment and the assoicated threat (identification of stress as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful)
If primary appraisal reveals a threat…
- Secondary appraisal: directed as evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress (evaluation of harm/damage, threat, and challenging; potentail to overcome)
What is the social readjustment rating scale?
stress level can be measured in “life change units”
What are the three distinct stages of the general adaptation syndrome?
- Alarm: initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (hypothalamus stimulates pitutitary to release ACTH–> stimulate adrenal glands to secrete cortisol/adrenal medulla leadsing to release of epinephrine and norepinephrine)
- resistance: continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous systems to remain engaged to fight the stressor
- exhasution: body can not loner maintain an elevated responses with sympathetic nervous activity –> become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions
What feeling are the left and right frontal lobe associated with?
- Left–> positive feelings
- right–> negative feelings
What is the
- Approach-approach conflict
- Avoidance-avoidance conflict
- Approach-avoidance conflict
- choose btw two desriable options
- choose between two negative outcomes
- deal with only one choice, goal, or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative outcomes
What is the main idea of hiearchy of salience?
We let situations dictate which idenity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
What is the seld-discrepancy theory and what are the three main components?
Each of us have three sevles and that perceived difference between these selves leads to negative feelings. The closer these three selves are, the higher self-esttem
- Idea self: person we want to be
- Actual self
- Ought Self: the representation of the way others think we should be
What is self-efficacy? What happens when it is low and high?
Is our belief in our ability to scceed
- Overconfidence: is when it is high
- Learned helpness: is when it is low and perceived lack of control, from repeated events
What is the difference between self-concept and self-identity?
Self concept describes the sum of all the phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are (self-schemata), who we used to be, who we may become.
Identity is a set of heaviors or labels we take on when in a specific group.
What are Freud’s 4 stages of Psychosexual Development?
- Oral(0 to 1): libidinal energy centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency
- Anal (1 to 3): toilet training occurs durring this time; fixation can lead to excessive organization or messiness
- Phallic: oedipal (for male) or Electra (for female —> have penis envy and will exhibit less female stereotypical behavior conflicts is resolves during this stage
- Genital: begings at purberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationship
What is neurosis caused from?
Fixation occurs when a child overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development and will lead to anxiety where the child will perform a personality patterns based on a particular state which persists into adulthood
What are Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development?
Need to gain a positive outcome to develope and can develope other stages without developing previous stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust(0 to 1): Trust work? Cargivers? parents
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3): Able to exert control on environment? Able to excersise choice? Ok to be me?
- Initative vs, guilt (3 to 6): Is it ok for me to do, move, and act?
- Industry vs inferiority (6 to 12): Can i make it in the world of people and things?
- Identity vs. role confusion (12-20): Who am I? What can I be?
- Intiamcy vs. isolation (20 to 40): Can I love?
- Generatibity vs. Stagnation (40 to 65): Can I make my life count?
- Integrity vs. depair (65 to death): Is it ok to have been me?
What are the three phases of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development?
- Preconventional morality (preadolescence): 1)Obedience (avoiding punishment) and 2) Self-interest (gain rewards and instrimental relativist stage; mutual sharing)
- Conventional morality (adolescence to adulthood): 3) conformity (seek approval from others) 4) law and order (social order)
- Postconventional morality (adulthood): level of reasoning not everyone is capable of 5) social contract (moral rules as conventions to ensure greater good) 6)universal human ethics (decisions should be made based on abstract principles)
What concept is Vygotsky known for?
Zone of proximal development: referring to skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of developing. Require a more knowledgable other to accomplish
What is theory of mind?
The ability to sense how another mind works, we become aware of judgments
What is looking-glass self?
Our understanding of how others see us, which relies on perceieving a relfection of ourselves based on the words and actions of others
What were the three entities of Freud’s perception on personality?
- id: basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce, functions according to the pleasure principle. Primary process is id’s response to furstration based on pleasure principle. Wish fufillment is through mental imagery (daydreaming)
- Ego: operated according to reality principle that taks into accound reality as it guides and inhibits activity of id. Secondary process is to postpone the pleasure principle until satifisfaction can be obtained. Ego is the organizer of the mind and it receives its power from id and can never be independent from it
- Superego: personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishment and guild at our failures. Is divided into 1) conscience (collection of improper actions for which a child is punished) 2) ego-ideal (proper actions for which s a child is rewarded)
Id is in unconscious relm and ego and superego are unconsicous and preconscious relm
What are the 8 main defense mechanisms that ego uses to relieve anxiety caused by the clash of Id and superego?
- Repression: ego’s way fo forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious. disguis threatening impulses from unconscious.
- supression which is more deliberate conscious form of forgetting
- Regression: reversion to an earlier developmental state/ return to earlier behaviors
- Reaction formation: individual supresses urges by unconsciously converting them into opposites
- Projection: individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. “I hate my parents” to “my parents hate me”
- Rationalization: justification of behaviors in a manners that is acceptable to self and society.
- Displacement: the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another.
- Sublimation: transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors (anger convert to drive for success)
What were the two components Carl Jung divided the unconscious into?
- personal unconscious
- collective unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all humans and considers to be a residue of the experiences of earlier ancestors. Images have an emotion elemtns (archetypes)
What are the 4 different archetypes?
- Persona: is linked to a mask we wear in public/ it is the part of our personality we present to the world/ adaptive to social interactions
- Anima: feminine qualities in men
- Animus: masculine qualities in females
- Shadow: responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and sociallt reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experiences in the unconscious mind
What are Jung’s 3 dichotomies of personality? What did it provide the framework for?
- Extraversion vs introversion
- Sensing (obtaining objective info about the world) vs intuiting (working with info abstractly)
- Thinking vs feeling
Myers-Bruggs Tyoe Inventory
What are four main components to Adler’s theory of personality?
- Inferiority complex
- creative self: force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
- Style of life: the manifestation of the creative self/a person’s unique way of achieving superiority
- fictional finalism: an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences
Adler assumes people are motivated by striving for superiority
What is the object relations theory?
the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy
What do humanistic theorists focus on?
- values of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways inwhich healthy people strive towards self-realization.
What two theories flow from humanistic theory?
- Maslow’s hiercharchy of needs: Self-actualized people are more likely to have peack experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life that have important and lasting effects on the individual
- Roger’s therapeutic approach of unconditional positive regard
What is Kelly’s personal construct psychology?
Individuals are scientists who devise and test predictions about the behavior of significant people. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on his or her knowledge, perception, and relationship with other people.
What is Roger’s client-centered, person-centered, or nondirective therapy?
Roger believed people have the freedom to control their own behavior. Person centered approach helped client reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions
What is the main idea of unconditional positive regard?
A therapeutic technique by which the therapists accepts the client completely and expressed empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
What is the difference between Type Theorists and trait theorists?
- Type theorists attempts to create taxonomy of personality types/personalities are set of distinct qualities and dispositions into which people can be grouped
- Trait theorists perfer to descrive individual oersonality as the sumer of a person’s characteristic behaviors. personalities are assembled from having different degrees of certain qualities and dispositions
What are four examples of Type Theories?
- Personality Types based on humors or body fluids
- somatotypes: personaility types based on body types
- Type A vs. Type B
- Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
What are four examples of trait theorists?
- PEN model: Psychoticism (a measure of nonconformity or social deviance), extraversion (measure of tolerance to social interactions and stimulation), Neuroticism (measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations)
- Five Factor Theory: openness, consientiosness, Agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism
- Gordan Allport’s three traits: Cardinal traits (traints around which a person organizes her or his life), Central Traits (major characteristics of personaility that are easy to infer), Secondary Traits (other personal characterisitcs that are more limited in occurrence. Funcational Autonomy is important and explains that behaviors continues despite the absence of orginally drive of the behavior
- McClelland identified the personalilty trait of the need for achievement (N-Ach)
What are the two main ideas of social cognitive perspective?
- Focuses on how our environment influences our behaviors and how we interact with the environment, so intern affect out identity
- Reciprocal determinism: our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situtations. People mold their environments according to their personalities, and those environments in turn shape our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
What is the main idea of psychoanalysis?
Personality is the result of unconscious urges and desires
What is androgyny
- scoring high in both masculitnity and feminity
What is the difference between biomedical and biopsychosocial model?
- Biomedical consered the physical, pathological mechanisms that underlie mental illness
- Biopsychosocial considered the contributions of biological factors along with psychology (thoughts, emotions, beahviors) and social instituions(environment, social class, discrimination, or stigmatization)
What are four different types of delusions?
- Delusion of reference: belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual (person on TV is talking to you directly)
- Delusion of persecution: belief that the person is being deliberately interfer with, discriminated against, plotted against or threatened.
- Delusions of grandeur: the belief that the person is remarkable in some signifcant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon
- Thought broadcasting(belief that one’s thoughts are broadcast directly from one’s heads to the external world), Thought withdrawal (the belief that thoughts are being removed from one’s head), thought insertion (belief that thoughts are being placed in one’s head
What are three types of disorganized behavior?
- Catatonia: certain motor beahvior characteristic of some people with schizophrenia (ex: maintain a rigid poster and refuse to move/spontaneous movements)
- Echolalia: repeating another’s words)
- echopraxia: imitating another’s actions
What are four types of negative symptoms in psychotic disorders?
- Disturbance of affect: disruption in the experience and display of emotions
- Blunting: severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression
- emotional flattening: no signs of emotional expression
- inappropriate affect: ex: laugh hysterically while discribing death
- avolition: decreased engagement in purposeful, goal=direct actions
What are the 3 phases of schizophrenia?
- Prodromal phase: evidence of deterioration, social withdrawl, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unsual experience
- Actin Phase: psychotic symptoms are displayed
- residual phase (recovery phaser): occurs after an active episode and is mental clarity resulting in concern or depression as they become aware of previous behavior
What is brief Psychotic disorder?
Positive psychotic symptoms are present for at least a day, but less than a month
What is Schizophreniform Disorder?
Same diagnostic criteria as schizophrenia except in duration (require duration for diagnosis is only for a month)
What are the 9 symptoms of depressive disorders?
Sadness + SIG E. CAPS
Sleep
Interest
Guilt
Energy
Concentration
Appetite
Psychomotor symptoms (slowed thoughts and physical movements)
Suicidal thoughts
What is major depressive disorder?
Major despressive episode where there is a 2 week period a person experiences 5 of the 9 depressive symptoms, must include depressed mood or anhedonia (inability to feel)
What us disruptive mood dysregulation disorder?
diagnosed between 6-10 years, persistent and recurrent emotional irritability in multiple environments
What are the 7 manic symptoms? What is a manic episode?
DIG FAST
Distractibility
Irresponsibility
Grandiosity: exagerated increase in self-esteem
Flight of Thought: rapid thoughts
Activity or agitation
Sleep: decrease sleep
Talkative
one week duration of at least 3 of the above symptoms
How is Bipolar II disorder different fron Bipolar I disorder/major depressive disorder?
Bipolar II disorder: both major depressive episode with hypomanic episode (2 or more of manic symptoms for at least 4 days)
Bipolar I disorder: manic episodes with or with out major depressive
Major depressive disroder: at least one major depressive episode with no manic episodes
What us cyclothymic disorder?
hypomanic episodes and dysthymia (persistent depressive disorder: depressive symptoms for at least 2 years) that is not sever enough to be a major depressive episode
experience numeric manic and depressive symptoms over 2 years
What does the monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression explain?
Too much serotonine or nonepinethrine in synapse can lead to mania but too little leads to depression
What is selective mutism?
consistent inability to speak in situations where speaking is expected
What is Agoraphobia?
fear of being in paces or situations where it might be difficult to escape
associated with panic attacks and fear of being negatibely evaluated by others
What are trichotillomania and excoriation disorder?
trichotillomania: compelled to pull out hair
excoriation disorder: compelled to pick their skin
What are the 4 symptoms associated with PTSD?
- Intrusion symptoms: recurrent reliving of the even, flashbacks, nightmares, and prolonged distress
- Arousal symptoms: increased starle response, irritability, anxiety, self-destructive or reckless behavior, sleep distrubances
- Avoidance symptoms: deliberate attemtps to avoid the memories, people, places, activities, and objects associated with the trauma
- Negative cognitive symptoms: inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood or emotions, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world
What is dissociative amnesia?
inability to recall past experiences
May also experience dissociative fugue (sudden unpected move or puposeless wandering away from one’s home or location), assumption of new identity
What is Depersonalization/derealization disorder?
individuals feel detached from own mind and bodies (depersonalization) or surroundings (derealization)
What is two somatic disorders (involve bodily symptoms and may be related to medical condition)?
- Illness anxiety disorder: consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
- Conversion disorder: symptoms affecting volunteray motor or sensory functions that are incompatible with patient’s neurophysiological condition (ex: paralysis or blindness withouth evidence of neuological damage)
Why are personality disorders considered ego-syntonic? What is the opposite of ego-syntonic?
- individual percieves her beahvior as correct, normal, or in harmony with goals
- Ego-dystonic: individual sees the illness as somthing thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome
What is Cluster A of personality disorders? What are the 3 disorders under it?
Is marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric by others
- Paranoid PD: pervasive distrust/ suspicion
- Schizotypal PD: pattern of odd or eccentric thinking (delusion/magical thinking/superstitiousness), eccentricity
- Scizoid PD: pervasive pattern of detachment from social relatioships and restricted rnge of emotional expression (little desire for social interactions)
What is Cluster B of personality disorders? What are the 4 disorders under it?
Marked by heabior that is dramtic, emotional, or erratic
- Antisocial PD(more common in males): disregard for and violation of rights of others (illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, lack of remorse)
- Borderline PD(more common in females): instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image. Uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long term goals and values. Use splitting as a defense mech (things are all good or all bad)
- Histrionic PD: constant attention-seeking behavior
- Narcissitic PD: preccupation with fantasies of success, need constant admiration and attention, fragile self-esteem
What is Cluster C of personality disorders? What are the 3 disorders under it?
Makred by behavior that is labeled as anxious or fearful of others
- Avidan PD: extreme shyness and fear of rejection. Socially isolated despite a desire for social affection and acceptance. Stay in same jobs, relatioships despite wanting change
- Dependent PD: continuous need for reassurance. Remained dependent on one specific person to take action and make decisions
- Obsessive-compulsive PD: perfectionaist and inflexible, like rules and order, dislike change, excessibe stubbornnes
What are the four markers for depression?
- High glucose metabolism in amygdala
- Hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness
- Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol)
- Decreased norepinephrine, serotonine, and dopamine
What are the 4 markers for bipolar disorders?
- Increased nonrepinephrine and serotonin
- higher risk if parent has disorder
- higher risks for persons with multiple sclerosis
What are 6 traits of Parkinson’s disease?
- Bradykinesia: slowness in movement
- Resting tremor
- pill-rolling tremor: flexing and extending fingures while moving thumb back and forth
- masklike facies: static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, open mouth
- cogwheel rigidity: muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipuate limb
- Shuffling gait with stooped posture
What are the 3 ideas of Yerkes-Dodoson Law of social facilitation?
- being in the presences of other will raise arousal
- which enhances the ability to rpeform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks)
- hinders the performation of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)
What is deindividuation? What is it also refered to as?
- the loss of one’s self awareness in a group setting and adoption of a more group oriented identity
- mob mentality: individuals of the group lose their own sense of morals and ethics and adopt the mob mentaility
What does deindividuation lead to?
Antinormative behavior: behavior that is not socially acceptable in most social circumstances
What is cognitive dissonance?
the presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
What is the difference between primary and secondary socialization?
- Primary: occurs during childhood when we learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society
- Secondary: learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of larger society (outside home)
What is anticipatory socialization?
persons prepare for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships
Define labeling theory?
labels given to a person affect how other respond to that person but also the label will affect that person’s self image
What is differential association theory?
initimate exposure to otherws who enage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior themselves
What is strain theory?
deviance as a natural reactions to the disconnect between social goals and social structure
What is normative conformity?
the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
What is identification?
outward acceptance of other’s ideas without personally taking on these ideas
What is compliance?
change in behavior based on a direct request from people who do not wield authority over the individual (different from obedience)
What are four different compliance techniques?
- foot-in-the-door: technique begins with a small request, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made
- door-in-the-face technique: a large request is made at first, and if refused, a second smaller request is made /make person feel guilty
- lowball technique: requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the comitment. gaining compliance without revealing the full cost (money, time, effort)
- that’s-not-all technique: individual makes an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected. increasing the reward for a request before an individual has the chance to make a decision
What does the functional attitudes theory state?
attitudes serve four functions
- knowledge function: knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior
- ego-expressive: allowing use to communicate and solidify our self-identity
- adaptive: expressed socially acceptable attitude will lead to acceptance
- ego-defensive: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong
What is learning theory?
attitudes are developed through different forms of learning (through direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, conditioning)
EX: parents do not allow you to sue curse words, do not like people that use curse words
What us the elaboration likelihood model? What are the two extremes?
attitudes are formed and change through different routEs of information processing based on degree of elaboration
- Central route processing: deeping thinking, draw conclusions and make decisions based on deep analysis–> lead to central route persuasion: attempt to influence attitudes that using inforation that appeals to central route processing
- Peripheral route processing: do not elaborate and focus on superficial details–> lead to peripheral route to persuasion when attempt to influence attitudes by appealing to peripheral route processing
What us social cognitive theory?
people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others, personal factors, environment (The three interacive factors of Bandura’s triadic recprocal causation). Behavior is not learned through trial and error but rather direct obersvation and replication of actions of others
What is internalization?
tyoe of conformity in which individuals change their outward opinions to match the group
What are the three types of statuses?
- Ascribed Status: one given involuntarily (usually at birth) due to race, ethnicity, gender, family background
- Achieved status: status that is gined as a result of one’s efforts or choices
- Master Status: a status a person is most identified/ most important to them
What is the difference between role conflict, role strain, and role exit?
Role conflict: difficulty satisfying the requirement or expectations of multiple roles
role strain: difficulty in satifying mutlple requirements of the same role
role exit: dropping of one idenity for another
What is a network? What is the difference between immediate and distant networks?
use to describe an observable pattern of socialr elatiohsips amoung groups
immediate network: dense group of people with strong ties
distant: are looser with weaker ties
What are organizations?
are complex secondary groups that are set up to achieve specific goals and have a structure and culture
What does Gemeinshaft and Gesellschaft mean
- community: group unified by feelings of togetherness due to chared beliefs, ancestry, geography
- society: is a group of unified mutal self-intersts in achieving a goal
What is the iron law of oligarchy?
states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group
What does the social construction model assume?
there is no biological basis for emotion. EMotions are based on experiences and situational context alone
What are display rules?
govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree
What is cultural syndrome?
- is shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same cutlure that are organized around a central theme
What us impression mamangemnet and what are the three selves?
refers to our attempts to influence how other perceive us
- Authenic self: whp the person actually is
- ideal self: who would we like to be
- tactile selfL who we market outselves to be
What are 5 stratiegies for impression managment?
- self disclosure
- managing appearence
- ingratiation: using flattery or conforming to expectation to win someone over
- aligning actions” making questional behavior acceptable through excused
- altering-casting: imposing idenity onto one another
What is dramaturgical appraoch?
using theatrical performace to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situtations
- front stage self: persona they present to an audience and strives to preserve his desired image
- back-stage self: persona adopted when not in a social situations and there is no concern about upholding the performance of a desired public image
What is the Me and the I?
Me: part of a self that is developed through interaction with society. Consider the generalize other, which is based on a peron’s establioshed perceptions of expectations of society. I is the indivduals impulses. Persons impulses are shped by interpreations of society’s expecations
What is presented self?
it is composed of authentic, idea, and tactial(self we present to others when we adher to their expectations) selves
What is the difference between intra and interspecific animal communication?
Intra: communication between members of the same species
inter: communication between members of different species
What are the 4 different modes of attachment?
- Secure Attachment: child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, knowing that they have a secure base to return to
- Avoidant Attachment: caregiver has little to no response to a distressed child. Children will show no preference between a stranger and a caregiver
- Ambivalent Attachment: caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully. Child is unable to form a secure base (anxious-ambivalent attachment)
- Disorganized Attachment: child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to caregiver;s absences or presences (mix of avoidance or resistence, confusion)
What does the cognitive neoassociation model state?
We are more likely to respond to to other aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions
What are the five fators that influence interpersonal attraction?
- physical attractiveness
- similarity
- selc-disclosure
- reciprocity
- proximity
What are the five different types of social support?
- Emotional support: listening, affirming, empathizing with someone’s feelings
- Esteem Support: affirming the qualities and skills of a person
- Material Suppor: financial or material contributions to another person
- Informational Support: provide information that will help someone.
- Network Support: social suppor that gives a person a sense of belonging
What are the 5 different mechanisms of mate choice?
- Phenotypic benefits: observable traites that make a mate more attactive to the opposite sex
- Sensory bias: development of a trait to match a preexisting preferenece that exists in the population
- Fisherian or runaway selection: positive feedback mechanism where a particular trait that has no effect or a negative effect on survival becmes more exgerated over time. trait is deemed desirable and more likely to pass on
- indicator traits: traits that signify fgood health and well being
- Genetic compatibility: complementary genes between mates. Explaintation for reduced freq of recessive genetic disorders in a pop
What is the empalthy-altruism hypothesis?
one explanation for the relatioship between empathy and helping behavior
What is the Hawk-Dove game and what are the 4 alternatives for competitos when dealing with strategic interactions?
Game theory: attempts to explain decision making behavior
- Altruism: donor provides a benefit to the recipient at cost to themselves
- cooperation: both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating
- spite: both the donor and recipient are negatively impacted
- selfishness: donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted
What is inclusive fitness?
measure of an organism’s success in a population. based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and ability of offspring to support others
What is implicit personality theory?
set of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior relate
What is reliance on central traits?
people dent to organize the perception of others based on traits and personality charcteristics of the target that are most relevants to the perceiver
What is the halo effect?
judgment about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected one’s overall impression of the individual
What are the two motivational processes that influence self-serving bias?
- Self-enhancement: on the need to maintain self-worth
- self-verification: suggests people will seek the companionshp of others who see them as they seem themselves
What are 3 types of cues?
- Consistency cues: behavior over time/ more regular the behavior, the more we aasociate the beahviors with the motives of person
- Consensus cuesL extent to which a person’s behaviors differs from the group. If person deviates from socially excepted behavior, we are likely to form dispositional attributions
- Distinctiveness Cues: extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios. If person’s behavior varies–> situational attributions
What is correspondent inference theory?
is used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional behaviors performed by another
What are the 4 different types of stereotypes?
- Paternalistic: a group is looked down upon as inferios, dismissed, ignored
- Contemptuous: group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, anger
- Envious: those which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, distrust
- admiration: which the group is viewed with pride or positive feelings
What are three things that influence prejudice?
power, prestige, class
What is symbolic interactionism? Who founded it?
- attempts to understand human actions and interaction by studying symbols we sue to communiate (three assumptions: humans act towards symbols based on meanings of symbol, the meanings of symbols carry from social interaction, humans interpret the meaning of symbols and interpretations influence actions). overlooks macrolevel structures
- Herbert
What is social constructionism?
attempt to understand society through the study of social constructs. Individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality. Overlooks macrolevel strucutre
What is structural functionalism? Who founded it?
- each social group’s role is a function: the contribution made by that group to the system. Different groups in society work together in an unconscious, automatic way towards equilibrium. Not good for explaining social change
- Durkheim
What is feminist theory?
- critques the institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society
- society as inherently patriarchal (even study of sociology has been dominated by men)
- glass ceiling vs glass escalator (invisible social forces push men to top expecially in female dominated jobs)
What is teacher expectancy?
teachers tend to get what they expect from students (place high demands on students, students will suceed–> ex of self-fufilling prophacy)
What is fundamentalism?
groups maintance of strict adherence to religious code
What are the dependecy ration, youth ratio, age dependency ratio?
dependecy ration: ratio of the number of memebers of a pop that are not in workforce to the the number that is
youth ratio: number of people under 15 yrs old divided by the number of people ages 15-65
age dependecy ratio: number of people over 65 divided by number of people ages 15-65
What is demograohic transition theory? What are its 4 stages?
Explains link btw economic development and demographic shift
- preindutrial society; birth and death rates high (stable pop)
- economic progress leads to improvements to healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, wages, causing decrease in death rates
- improvements in contraception, women’s rights, shift to industrial economy. birth and death rates level off
- industrialized society, birth and death rates low, constant pop
Wnat is Malthusian theory?
How exponential growth of a pop can outspace growth of food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder
what is ageism?
prejudice or discrimination based on age
What is the difference between Birth/Mortality rate and fertility rate?
Birth and mortality rate are measure per 1000 people per year and fertility rate is measured number of children per woman during lifetime
What is the Kinsey scale?
scores 6 as exclusively homosexual and 3 as bisexual
What is class consciousness? What is false consciouness?
- refers to the organization of the working class around shared goals and recognition of a need for collective political action
- a misperception of one’s action position within society
What is the difference between Meritocracy and plutocracy?
Meritocracy is a social structure in which intellectual talent and achievement are means for a person to advance up the social ladder
Plutotocracy: rule by upper class
What is suburbanization and how does it relate to urban decay?
Suburbanization: greater concetration of poor individuals in urban centers/ migration pattern of the middle class to sburban communities. lower classes stay in urban centerws
Can lead to urban decay, where a previously functional protion of a city deteriorates and becomes decrepit overtime
What is second sickness?
an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social justice and social inequalities
What is the difference between medicare and medicaid?
Medicare: patients in older age group
medicaid: low socioeconomic status
What is the elaboration likelihood model?
there are 2 pathways to attitude change:
- central path: more interested/spend more time examining
- peropheral path: not interested/get distracted easily

What is content analysis method of research?
focused on identifying patterns of communications by analyzing the content of text/speech (communication based data)
What is the difference between a mediating variable and a moderating variable?
- mediating: explains a counter intuitive relationship btw dep variable and ID
- moderating variable: modulates intensity of certain relationship
What is aversive conditioning?
trained by positive punishment
What are the two structure of the midbrain and what are their purposes?
- inferior and superior colliculi
- superior is involved in visual processing
- inferior is involved auditory
What is the patellar reflex? Palmar reflex?
patellar: hit knee and kick
palmar: baby clench palm when pressure applied
What is fantacy?
mental images that stimulate the person to behave to achieve the fantacy
What does valence mean?
the value that a person sets on reinforcements and rewards. these values are ussualy based on an individual’s values, needs, goals, or intrinsic or extrinsic forms of motivation
What is drive reduction theory?
motivation that is centered around need for homeostasis
What are the 8 stages of Erikson’s development?
trust vs. mistrust (0-1), autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1-3), initiative vs. guilt (3-6), industry vs. inferiority (6-12), identity vs. role confusion (12-20), intimacy vs. isolation (20-39), generativity vs. stagnation (40-65), integrity vs. despair
How do self-deafing or self destructive behaviors manifest?
They are due to the inability to handle anxiety or stress so these behaviors provide immediate relief
What is delirium tremens?
acude episode of delirium (confused/reduced awareness) caused from withdrawal of alcohol
What is General paresis?
paralysis caused by lage stage syphilis
What is Korasoff’s syndrome?
neurological disorder from lack of B1. Onset is linked to chronic alcohol abuse or severe malnutrition
reduction in mitochondrial activity
What are the 3 functions of mirror neurons?
- empathy
- theory of mind: to take another’s perspective
- assessment of individuals repeated behavior
What is Chomsky’s language aquisition theory?
people have innate language acquisition device
What are the three structures that make up the brainstem?
pons, medulla oblogata, midbrain
(provides a connect to brain and spinal cord
What is the function of the basal ganglia?
voluntary movt, emotion, learning, habitual behavior
What stage of sleep do bed wtting and sleep walkig occur?
3/4
What is the difference between beta and alpha wave?
Beta: low amp, high frew
alpha: high amp, high freq (are more consistent)
How does the length of the sleep cycle change with age?
increases with age
How do the duration of stages of sleep change throughout the night?
REM starts to predominate
Stages of sleep?
- theta wave (low amp, irregular freq), moderate eye movt, skeletal muscle activity
- theta waves/ K complexes(single high amp, low freq)/sleep spindles (burst of high freq, moderate amp), no eye movt, little skeletal movt
3/4. delta waves(slow-wave sleep, high amp, low freq)
REM (dreams)
What is anchoring?
form of bias: individual’s descisions are influenced by a reference point
What is the social cognitive perspective?
based on expectations of others
What 4 contrasts does the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory use?
Jung’s extraversion vs. introversion, sensing vs. intuiting, and thinking vs. feeling
AND
(judging vs. perceiving)
What are stimulus motives?
innate but not necessary for survival
What is construct validity?
degree to which items measure what research intends for them to measure
What is critical validity?
how well a test correlates with another well establishes criterion
what is content validity?
tests covers the full range of content that the researchs desire to test
What is operationalization?
is the process of making a variable measurable
What is test validity?
test actually succeed
What is internal validity?
degress to which casual conclusions can be drawn
What is a case control study?
comparison-no comparison in case studies
What is referent power?
exert control by appealing to other’s desire to belong
What does declaritive memory consist of?
facts, events(explicit)
What us looking glass self?
we incorporate others’ perceptions of us into our perceptions of ourselves
What is a projective personality assessment?
participants respond, then their responses are assessed for meaning
What us convergence theory?
people coming together (functionalist perspective)
What is differential associatation theory?
individuals engage in criminal choices b/c they are exposed to it
What is the difference between Psychoanalytic and humanistic perspective?
- Pyschoanalytic: urges/desires (Ex: Freud and Jury(archetypes))
- Humanistic: strive towards happiness and self realization (Maslow and Roger’s unconditional regard)
What are conversion disorders?
unexplained symptoms affecting sensory or motor function
What does the superior colliculus control?
reflex arcs
What are parasomnias?
odd behavior during sleep
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
- deductive: derive conclusions from rules
- Inductive: generalization about evidence
What is the difference between approach-avoidant and approach-approach/avoidant-avoidant?
Approach-avoidant have one option either + or -
others have two options
What is signal detection theory?
nonsensory factors influence perceptions (emotion, motive, expectations)
What three structures make up hindbrain?
cerrebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation
what two structures make up midbrain?
inferior (auditory) and superior (visual) colliculi
What 5 structures make up the forebrain?
thalamus(sensory), hypothalmus, basal ganglia (smooth movt), limbic system (septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus), cerebral cortex
What is attrition bias?
participants drop out of long term study
What is most resistant to extinction?
variable ratio
What is ingratiation?
attempt to get someone to like you in order to get the to comply
What is expectancy-value theory?
amount of motivation required to achieve a goal is affected by a person’s expectations of reaching goal and how that person values reaching that goal
What is social proof?
adopt behavior of others, assumptions that other’s behavior must be correct
What is the mesolimbic pathway?
reward
What is etiologyz?
onset
What does the pons control?
movt
What is the frontal striatal loop?
learning/movt/ventral legmental area (learning)
What are types of barbitrates and benzodiozepines are there? what do they do?
increase Gaba and examples are alperozolm and phenobarbital
What is the cognitive theorist idea?
arousal: noepinephrine and epinephrine are essential to sustain behavior
What is the function of the frontal lobe?
executive, impulse control, long term planning (prefrontal), motor function (primary motor cortext), Broca’s area
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
somatosensory, spatial processing, orientation, manipulation
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area, limbic system
What is Allport known for?
trait theory: cardinal traits (people orgnanize their enture lives), central traits (defining characteristics), secondary (traits only occur sometimes)
What is the activation synthesis hypothesis?
differences in neuronal activity in brainstem during waking and REM/dreams result from brain activting during REM
What is social cog theory?
people learn from observing others
What is the main point of Soloman’s Asch’s conformity exp?
individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view is different from correct answer
What is Albert Bandura?
children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when watch adults exhibit behavior
What is Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison exp?
effect of power and authority
What is Milgram’s exp?
authority and electric shock
What is thinning?
reduce freq of reward
What is Han Eysenous main idea?
personality differences to be result of biological factors
What is false consciousness?
idea from Marxism that refers to ideology dominating the consciousness of exploited groups and justifies and perpetuates their exploitation
Ex: workers in an electronics factory in china told by their managers if they work hard for low wages, they may be promoted. The workers see the factory managers as potential allies, not the opposition that exploits them
What is the difference between a mob and a crowd?
- crowd:a group of people in a single location that is united by a shared purpose
- mob: form of crowd with violent intentions
What does aligning actions mean?
refers to a pattern of self-presentation where one plans actions in a light that seems favorable
What does altercasting mean?
managing others by projecting expectations onto them
What is Fisherian selection?
mate choice and the use of flashy signals as indicators of fitness, like a male peacock’s vibrant tail
What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?
structure of a language affects its speakers’ worldview or cognition, and people’s perceptions are relative to their spoken language
What did Bandura find?
reciprocal causation= behavior, personal factors, environment influence attitudes= interaction btw these factors is reciprocal determinism
What did Goerge Mead find?
One’s identity is composed of “me” and “I” (one’s identity is developed through social interaction)
me: attitudes, roles, meaning, pressure, values of society and others are organized into one’s social self
I: desires, freedom, creativity, autonomy
What is the difference between rods and cones?
Cones perceive color and fine detail, while rods allow for the perception of light and dark
What croses at optical chiasm?
nasal fibers
When does narcissism happen?
disconnect between self-concept and reality
Where does ego fall? Superego?ID?

What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive?
prescriptive is what an individual believes should occur
descriptive: what one believes as actually occuring
What are three things working memory requires?
short term memory, attention, executive function of brain
What makes up long term memory?
Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory): acquired skills and conditioned responses/procedural memory (cerrebellum: motor skills and specific physical actions)
explicit memory(declarative memory): memories that we must consciously recall with effort and focus. Episodic memory–> our experiences. Semantic memory–> facts and concepts that we know (hippocampus)
What is eidetic memory?
photgraphic memory
What is lone dissenter?
can serve to reduce groupthink
What is the cog behavior theory?
houghts, emotions, body sensations, and behavior are all connected, and that what we think and do affects the way we feel
What two cells compose of the auditory nerve?
bipolar and polar cells
One reason that individuals do not seek help with hearing until hearing problems are entrenched is related to?
Weber’s law implies that gradual changes in a stimulus may elude detection, as they may fall below the just-noticeable difference threshold
What is the law of diminising return?
The law of diminishing returns refers to lessened results gained from some action over time.
What is Thorndike’s law of effect?
Thorndike’s law of effect relates to learning through conditioning.
What is the difference between beta and alpha waves when awake?
Beta (high freq, low amp) waves are up and alert, alpha (high amp, high freq) are up but fatigued
The dopamine circulating throughout the mesolimbic pathway is largely produced in which brain location?
Ventral tegmental area
How long must a patient experience symptoms of depression before he or she can be diagnosed with major depressive disorder?
Major depressive disorder can be diagnosed once a person has at least one major depressive episode. Major depressive episodes last a minimum of 2 weeks.
Wat is diffusion?
Diffusion refers to a process being transmitted across groups, in this case across SES groups. Being exposed to and potentially internalizing new learning methods via the school environment would therefore be an example of diffusion.
What is a cognitive theory of MDD?
Cognitive theories of behavior focus on how faulty ways of thinking can negatively manifest as behavioral and emotional disorders.
What is a phsychoanalytic theory of MDD?
a significant loss or emotional void.
What is a developmental theory of MDD?
disruption of certain critical periods during early development.
What is anhedonia?
Anhedonia is a difficulty feeling pleasure,
Why would pouring water into an ear cause dizziness?
Endolymph flow in the semicircular canals is disturbed, reducing the ability of hair cells to accurately detect angular acceleration.
What is the temp of physiological 0?
25-30 degrees C
or
85-90 degrees F
What is the difference between distal and proximal stimuli?
Distal: objects/events out in the world
proximal: the objects and events that actually reach your sense
What are the three things serotonin can regulate?
Sleep, apeptite, mood
What are three personality disorders?
avoidant, borderline, narcisistic
What concepts deal with systems theory?
concepts involving familes. The view of organizations as open social systems that must interact with their environments in order to survive
What is the stress-diathesis model?
The stress-diathesis model posits that underlying biological characteristics can be activated provided there is sufficient stress. An example of a stressor could be conflictual communication.
What is affirmative action?
policy of favoring members of a social group that is perceived to suffer from discrimination within a culture. Examples include setting aside certain US federal government contracts for minority-owned businesses,
What is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter?
The neurotransmitter released by the inner ear hair cells is known to excite the spiral ganglion it innervates. Glutamate is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter used in the brain, making it the most likely answer.
What is collective rationalization?
Collective rationalization is the tendency for individuals engaging in groupthink to discount warnings and fail to re-engage their assumptions.
What is illusion of unanimity?
the tendency for members of a group affected by groupthink to act and speak as if all members agree with the group’s judgment.
What are “mind guards”?
the tendency of a group engaging in groupthink to appoint an unofficial “thought police” charged with preventing it from being exposed to opposing ideas and opinions.
What causes increase negative response to stress? increase positive response to stree?
- High neuroticism (a long-term tendency to be in a negative emotional state) is associated with anxiety and increased susceptibility to stress. People with high neuroticism perceive everyday situations as being very stressful and potentially harmful. They respond poorly to trivial problems, and feel frustrated or upset very quickly.
- High extraversion may be associated with decreases in stress responses, as highly extraverted individuals may have greater access to social support networks that can help with stress management.
- High conscientiousness is associated with increased preparedness, which can decrease response to stress.
What is familiarity heuristics?
The familiarity heuristic involves inferring that past behavior will continue to the present.
What is conformation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s beliefs or hypotheses while giving disproportionately less attention to information that contradicts them.
What is the Likert Scale? What are its three weaknesses?
Require participants to rate their agreements with statements about attitudes, feelings, beliefs
Three:
- may avoid extreme responses/go towards mean =central tendecy bias
- if know what researcher is interested in and may try to please researcher= acquiescence bias
- may want to present themselves in a certain way so socially accepted= social desirability bias
What is the stress diathesis model?
explains that underlying stress, when excerbated by current stressors, can lead to disturbed functioning
What is the developmental model?
experiences at early age can impact a person now
What is the pyschodynamic model?
relationship experiences can affect other relationships
What is the difference between authoritarian and authoritative?
Authoritarian: harsh with little explanation
athoritative: having limits but not over top (good)
What is the repertory grid test?
easily adapted to particular clients/using the interviewee’s own language and setting out their responses in the form of a grid
What is the cochrane review?
investigate effects of intervention for prevention, treatment, rehabilitation
What is power analysis?
min sample size needed to have enough power
What is the difference between secondary and teritary kin?
secondary: husband/ mother in law
tertiary: son of wife’s brother
What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?
primary: devaince from a north that is considered acceptable, no long ter effects on self image
secondary: not considered acceptable and results from individual being excluded from society, behavior and self concept change after labeled deviant
What two traits are found in both bipolar and schizophrenia?
delusions and anhedonia
What is parallel processing?
ability to analyze and combine several pieces of information regarding color, motion, shape, at once (received through visual processing)
What is Robbe’s cave experiment?
children grouped into different camps and through manipulation, were encouraged to have negative attitudes towards each other, but when collaborate, they begin to view each other favoribly
What is Eyzenck’s contribution?
personality difference as a result of biologial differenes
What was Bandura’s contribution?
Boboball, observational learning for aggressive behavior
What was Albert’s contributions?
classsical conditioning/generalization (made boy fear furry animals)
What did Harlow contribute to?
parent child attachment
What are traits of stuck in anal stage?
obsessively organized/neat
What are traits of stuck in genital stage?
sexual dysfunction
What are traits of stuck in phallic stage?
odeipus or electra
What are traits of stuck in latency stage?
repress/unfufilled with sexual experience
Where is choroid?
behind retina
If the participants in Study 1 differed in the degree to which their ethnic identity was a central part of their self-concept, which outcome would be most likely? Participants whose ethnic identity was a central part of their self-concepts would
be more affected by the positive stereotype regarding Asian Americans’ math ability. people whose ethnic identity is a central part of their self-concept would be more prone to the effects of stereotype threat regarding their ethnic identity. This does not mean that they would not be affected by gender stereotypes or affected by the conditions of the experiment
What is the capacity of working memory? Who named it?
magic number 7 ± 2”
George Miller (1956)
What is a mixed-methods study?
Bringing together quantitative methods and qualitative methods is referred to as mixed methods in sociology
When does dreaming happen? When does body become paralyzed?
REM sleep
What is the nucleus acaumbens involved with?
dopamine release in mesolimbic system/associated with addiction
What can barbiturate use lead to?
memory loss
What is Treisman’s attenuation?
salient info might jump out to us from the background (ie. cocktail party effect)
What is sequential attention?
focus of our attention rapidly switches back and forth
What is availability heuristic?
believe something due to immediate examples or readily obtainble from memory
What is representative heuristic?
make conclusions and decisions based on average prototype
What is belief bais?
accepting new information that is aligned with our current belief system and denying info that is not aligned with out current belief
What is Howard Gardner known for?
7 intellengences
What is Cattel known for?
fluid vs crystalized intellegence
What is Selye’s general adaptation syndrome?
people’s responses to various stressors are similar
What are the 6 requirements of bureaucracy?
- hierarchy of authority
- promotion based on achievement
- division of labor
- impersonality
- written rules of conduct
- effeciency
What are five types of demographics?
- age
- sexual orientation
- immigration status
- gender
- race
What is the population pyramid?
the younger generations are at bottom
What can globailization lead to?
civil unrest due to inequality from colonialism or disparities in economic development
What is the difference between social identity threat and stereotype threat?
social identity threat: negative evaluations of social groups one belongs to
stereotype threat: is feeling of being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about a group one belongs to
What is the difference between Mead and Goffman’s theory?
Mead: socially acceptable projection of one’s self as the “me” and the true self as “I”
Goffman: uses actors and roles to explain social interactions (actor fits role)
What is accomadation accoring to Paiget?
accommodation is the process by which new information results in a reshaping of one’s intellectual framework for viewing the world and this is reflected in the redefining of the self.
How do semantic networks help with associative processes?
long term memory are organized into semantic networks where “nodes” are linked by association and causes adjacent nodes to be activated
Is urbanization considered a demographic shift or transition?
demographic shift
transition refer the changes in fertility, mortality, women’s rights
What is the main difference between fovea and periphery retina?
fovea has a high desnity of cones for day time visions and periphery retina has a high density of rods which are more photosensitive and can detect dim light
What are Neuroleptics?
first antipsychotic drugs used to treat positive symptoms in schizophrenia, but can lead to worsening negativesymptoms
What is negative priming?
an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus
What is place theory?
one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the basilar membrane
What are the two defining traits of basal membrane?
basilar membrane is widest and least stiff at the apex of the cochlea, and narrowest and stiffest at the base (near the round and oval windows, closer to outter ear). High-frequency sounds localize near the base of the cochlea, while low-frequency sounds localize near the apex.
What three structures are involved in reward pathway?
VTA, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex
In operant conditioning studies, how do you define the subject’s motivational state?
depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time
What is flash bulb memory?
people claim to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event
What type of intellengence does not change with age?
crystalized intellengence (semantic memory, general info)
Why is continious reinforcement the best for the beginning of acquisition of operant conditioning?
schedule unambiguoisly informs the subject which behavior is correct
What is the cognitive component of attitudes?
beliefs and ideas
Are people more productive in groups or alone? Why?
Alone because of social loafing. People are more productive alone
What is escape learning?
terminate unpleasant stimulus
What is the first phase of conditioning?
acquisition: take a neutral stimulus and associate it with an unconditioned stimulus. This neutral stimulus will become the conditioned stimulus
What is the hawthorne effect?
changes in research participants as a result of awareness of being observed
What is the thomas theorem? What are 2 examples of it?
- individuals believe something is real, then it is real in its consequences. interpretation causes actions/consequences
- stereotype threat, self-fufilling prophecy
What is Ullusion of invulnerability? What does it explain?
- members encourage risks, ignore possible pitfalls, too optomistic
- group think
What is Collective rationalization? What does it explain?
- members ignore expressed concerns about group approved ideas
- group think
What is Illusion of morality? What does it explain?
- members believe ideas produced by the group are morally and ethically correct, disregarding evidence 2. groupthink
What us Excessive stereotyping? When does it happen?
- members construct stereotypes of those with outside opinions
- groupthink
What is pressure for conformity? When does it occur?
- members feel pressured not to express opinions that disagree with group
- groupthink
What is Self-censorship? When does it occur?
- members withhold ideas and opinions that disagree with the group
- groupthink
What is illusion of unanimity? When does it occur?
- members believe the decisions and judgment of the group to be without disagreement, even if it does exist
- groupthink
What are informal and formal sanctions?
rewards and punishments
What is cognitive dissonance?
people tend to change their attitudes to match their behavior, rather than change behavior
What happens to external validity when you increase interal validity?
decrease external bc exp becomes too controlled
What might lead to bias search for evidence and/or bias interpretation of evidence?
conformation bias: tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs
What is binet’s idea of mental age?
measure of intelligence based on average abilities of children of a certain age
What is Galton known for?
hereditary genius
What is learning-performance theory?
learning something without actually performing behavior
What are the differences btw Vygotsyky, Chomsky, and Skinner’s view on language development?
Vygotsky: language was determines by interaction of biological and social influences
Chomsky: animals do not have capacity to create language, humans have LAD
Skinner: language is learned through reinforcement and approximation
What are the 4 aspects of McDonaldization?
efficiency, calculability, uniformity and control
What did Albert Bandura say about attitude?
Behavior, environment, and personal factors influence attitude (sociocognitive)
What are you more likely to change in cognitive dissonance?
attitudes to match actions
What is rapid-cycling bipolar disorder
4 or more manic or depressive episodes in one year
What is abasia?
inability to walk
What is parapraxis?
slip of the tongue, unintended actions
What is paredoilia?
see image and see something signifcant
What experiment was harlow known for?
wire mother
What is the function of the superior olive?
localize sound
What is the function of the inferior colliculus?
coordinate head rotation vith visual focus
What is the social interactionist theory?
development of brain + child’s ability to speak are correlated
What is Vygostsky state?
language is determines by interaction of biological and social facts
What are the two components of self-concept?
categorical: he/she is subject to a perception of others/ existential: can interact with world
What is motion parallax?
objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer
What is vestibular sense?
sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement with balance