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Junior Year- Mac- Fall 2024 > Behavioral Neuro Test 1 > Flashcards

Behavioral Neuro Test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

blood brain barrier

A

a type of physical protection that also leads to chemical protection. It is tightly packed cells of blood vessels and it ends up also protecting entry of many molecules

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2
Q

what are the 3 physical protections of the brain?

A

skull, meninges(dura, arachoind, and subarachnoid), and cereboralspinal fluid

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3
Q

what is circle of willis

A

an arrangesment of arteries that supply blood to the brain. the circle of willis is in the center (sort of like a roundabout)

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4
Q

what does circle of willis do?

A

it creates collaterals in cerebral circulation. if a part of the circle is blocked, blood from other vessels are still able to reach the route. its like a backup route.

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5
Q

what are neurons

A

special cells for reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals. can come in many shapes and sizes

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6
Q

channel protein of the cell membrane

A

ionotripic receptor

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7
Q

signal protein of cell membrane

A

metabotropic receptor

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8
Q

how are neurons classified?

A

by the number of processes coming off of them

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9
Q

glial cells do what

A

support neurons and they communicate with each other and other neurons

this is a new find! very cool!

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10
Q

5 classes of glial cells

A
  1. oligondendrocyte
  2. schwann cells
  3. microglia
  4. astrocytes
  5. ependymal cells
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11
Q

oligondendrocytes

A

they are rich in myelin and create the myelin sheaths in the CNS

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12
Q

schwann cells

A

they are rich in myelin and create myelin in PNS. So same as oligondendrocytes, but in the PNS

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13
Q

microglia

A

they are involved in the response to injury or diseases

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14
Q

astrocytes

A

these are the largest glia. they are star shaped and help with support, contact in neurons, blood vessels, etc)

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15
Q

ependymal cells

A

they line the walls of the ventricles and produce cereboralspinal fluid

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16
Q

gray matter in spinal cord

A

found on the inner areas. they are mainly cell bodies

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17
Q

white matter in spinal cord

A

they are on the outer area, they are mainly made of myelinated axons

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18
Q

dorsal side of spinal cord

A

the dorsal side in afferent and sensory

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19
Q

ventral side of spinal cord

A

this side is efferent and motor

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20
Q

what are the major DIVISIONS of the brain

A

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

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21
Q

forebrain is made up of what

A
  • telencephalon
  • diencephalon
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22
Q

midbrain is made up of what

A

mesencephalon (another name for midbrain)

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23
Q

hindbrain is made up of what

A
  • metencephalon
  • myelencephalon
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24
Q

myelencephalon (what is located in it + function

A

This is the medulla, specifically.
* it has tracts that carry signals
* the orgin of the recitcular formation is based here
* it regulates many things such as cardiac, circulatory, repiratory and other functions that keep you alive
* the rahe nuclei is located here

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25
Q

raphe nuclei

A

located in myelencepahalon. this is where serotonin producing neurons begin

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26
Q

recticular formation path

A

starts in medulla (myelencephalon) and continues up to metencephalon and mesenecephalon)

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27
Q

metencephalon

A

this is the pons and cerebellum
* has MANYY tracts

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28
Q

pons

A

the “switchboard” of the brain. connects cerebral cortex to cerebellum. it regulates REM sleep, posture, etc.

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29
Q

cerebellum

A

this regulates coordination, sensormotor control, memory for motor response (i.e. eyeblinking and other simple motor memories)

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30
Q

mesencephalon

A

the midbrain
* made up of tectum and tegmentum

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31
Q

tectum(where and what is in it)

A

the dorsal area of midbrain.
superior and inferior colliculi are here.

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32
Q

superior colliculi function

A

eye: visual-motor processing, controlling eye movement, gaze, etc)

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33
Q

inferior colliculi

A

located in dorsal area of tectum. auditory and locating sound spatially

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34
Q

tegmentum (plus main things located there)

A

the mid and ventral areas of the midbrain
* recticular formation
* tracts of passage
* preiaquedicutal gray
* substantia niagra
* Ventral temental area (VTA)
* and red nucelus

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35
Q

periaqueductal gray

A

located in tegmentum. tells us a LOT about behaviour in an animal.
* pain modulation (opioid receptors are here)
* defensive behaviors (also freezing)
* female sexual behavior (lordosis is a way to show sexual receptiveness)

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36
Q

substantia nigra (location and functions)

A

located in tegmentum
* sensorimotor movements
* dopomingeric neurons
* associative learning
* reward

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37
Q

ventral tegmental area (location and function)

A

located in tegmentum
* associative learning
* reward

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38
Q

red nucleus

A

located in tegmentum
* motor control
* limb movement

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39
Q

dicencephalon

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

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40
Q

thalamus- location + functions + what is in it

A

Located in diencephalon.

this has lots of different nuclei and cortical projections and functions including…
* sensory relay nuclei
* and other cognitive functions

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41
Q

list all the sensory relay nuclei

A
  1. lateral geniculate nuclei
  2. medial geniculate nuclei
  3. ventral posterior nuclei
  4. parvicellular protion of centroposteromedial nuclei
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42
Q

lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN)

A

focused on visual

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43
Q

medial geniculate nuclei(MGN)

A

auditory

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44
Q

ventral posterior nuclei

A

somatosensory system

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45
Q

parvicellular portion of centroposeromedial nuceli (VPMpc)

A

gustatory (taste)

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46
Q

cognitive/integrative functions of thalamus

A

mediodorsal nuclei ( a type of thalamic nuclei) projects to the frontal cortex. this can help with some decision making.

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47
Q

hypothalamus. location, functions + subregions

A

Located in dicencephalon

FUNCTIONS
* regulation of motivated behaviors (ie sleeping, eating, sex, etc)
* temp regulation and circadian cycles
* regulates reclose of hormones from pituitary glands
* sexually dimorphic nuclei (medial preoptic area) and is bigger in males than female brains
* anatomically mammilary bodies are also here

SUBREGIONS
lateral
* ventromedial
* medial preoptic area
* paraventicular
* suprachiasmatic nucleus

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48
Q

mammilary bodies

A

certain types of memories

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49
Q

lateral hypothalamus

A

orexin- feeding and sleeping/arousal

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50
Q

ventromedial hypothalamus

A

feeding, female sexual behaviour, fear, defensive emtional

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51
Q

medial preoptic area of hypothamalus

A

male sexual behaviors

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52
Q

paraventricular area of hypothalamus

A

stress and pitutary hormone

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53
Q

suprachiasmatic neuclus of hypothalamus

A

circadian rythms

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54
Q

convolutions in the brain

A

serve to increase surface area

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55
Q

gyrocephalic brain

A

has many convolutions

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56
Q

lissencephalic brain

A

has no convolutions

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57
Q

longitudinal fissure

A

groove that separates the hemispheres

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58
Q

corpus callosum

A

the largest cerebral commissure

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59
Q

list all the commissures of the brain

A
  1. corpus callosum (largest)
  2. anterior commissure
  3. posterior commissure
  4. hippocampal commissure (the commissure of the fornix,, its reward based)
  5. habenular commissure (proccessing of adverse events. bad things or lack of rewards)
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60
Q

what are all the cerebral lobes

A
  1. frontal
  2. parietal
  3. temporal
  4. occipital
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61
Q

frontal lobe

A
  • posterior area- motor and broccas area (speech + language productions)
  • anterior area- cogntiive/executive functions
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62
Q

parietal lobe

A
  1. somatosensory
  2. proprioception(being aware where you are in space)
  3. attention
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63
Q

temporal lobe (3 parts)

A
  1. medial
  2. inferior
  3. superior
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64
Q

medial temporal

A

certain memories

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65
Q

inferior temporal

A

identification of complex visual patterns

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66
Q

superior temporal

A

hearing + language + spoken speech comprehension (wernickes area)

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67
Q

occipital lobe

A

vision

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68
Q

neocortex

A

6 layers of cells. This is about 90% of the human cerebral cortex

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69
Q

allocortex

A

3 layers of cells- evolutionarily the orlder areas. hippocampus is allocortex

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70
Q

neocortical organization

A

functional columns. neurons within a given column share functional properties. ie respond to visual stimular with similar oritneted edges. cells of the columns have specific preferences.
somatosensory system resoonds to specific types of touch

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71
Q

subcortical stuctures

A
  1. limbic system
  2. basal ganglia system
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72
Q

limbic system(location, function, what is within it)

A

telencephalon

regulation of motivated behavior. mammillary bodies
hippocampus
amygdala
forix
cingulate cortex
septum

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73
Q

basal ganglia system (location, function, + what is within it)

A

Location: telencephelon

Function : performance of voluntary motor responces and certain kinds of decision making.
* dorsal stiatum (caudate + Putamen)
* globus palllidus

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74
Q

dorsal stiatum is made up of what

A

caudate nuclues and putamen

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75
Q

anatomy of diffuse modulatory systems

A

each system has a small set of neurons at the core. neurons of these arise from the central core (mainly brain stem) and each one can inluence many (i.e. axon may contact more than 100,000 postynaptic neurons)

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76
Q

noreprinephrine

A

NE
* orgin: locus coerulus (in pons)
* sends to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebellum, midbrain + spinal cord
* purpose- attention, arrounsal, sleep-wake, mood, pain, anxiety + some memory and learning

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77
Q

dopamine

A

DA
* orgin 1: substantia nigagra (midbrain) aka nigrostaital system
* sends to: dorsal stiatum
* purpose: initiation of voluntary movements (parkinsons disease happens with shrotage of DA)

  • orgin 2: ventral tegmental area (midbrain) aka mesocorticolimbic system
  • sends to: frontal cortex, ventral stiatum (nucleus accumbens) and other limbic systems
  • purpose: associative earning, reward, motivation, addiction, cognitice control, motivation, emotion
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78
Q

serotonin

A

5-HT
all in raphe nuclei (pons, medulla, midbrain)
* orgin 1: medulla
* projects to: spinal cord
* pain related sensory signals

  • orgin 2: pons and midbrain
  • projects to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, bsala ganglia, cerebellum
  • purpose: arousal, wakefulness, sleep wake, sleep states, mood, emotional behaviour
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79
Q

Acetylcholine

A

ACH
* orgin : places in basal forebrain
* suborgin 1: medial septal nuclus
* to: cholinergic innervation of hoopocamus
* suborgin 2: nuclus basalis of substantia innominata
* to: cholinergic innervation of cortex

overall purpose: arousal, sleep wake, attention, learning, memory

//

  • Orgin 2: pontomesencephalotegmental area (pons + minbrain tegmentum)
    • suborgin 1: PPT pedunclopontine tegmental nucleus)
      * to: cholinergic innervation of thalums, basal ganglia, and some of forebrain area
    • suborgin 2: LDT (lateral dorsal tegmental nucleus)
      • to: cholinergic innervation of thalamus, prefontal cortex and habenula

Overall purpose: regulation of sensory relay nuclei (kinda like a guard…is this information important enough to pass on? i.e. you dont always see your nose but its htere in your vision)

80
Q

anterograde tracing

A

forward. tracing where axons are projecting away from an area. tracers: phaseolous vulgaris leucoaggluntinin (PHA-L)

81
Q

retrograde tracers

A

bacward. froming from hwere axons are protecting into an area. tracers:
1. cholera toxin subunit B (CTb)
2. fluro-gold (FG)

82
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

different in electrical charge between inside and out of the cell.
* inside = (-)
* Outside = (+)

resting membrain potential is about -70mV

83
Q

is membrane polarized or not?

A

yes it is polarized. it carries a charge

84
Q

factors that contribute to even ion distribution

A

random motion and electrostatic pressure

85
Q

random motion

A

particles tend to move down their concentration gradient

86
Q

electrostatic pressure

A

like repels like,,, opposites attract

87
Q

factors that lead to uneven distribtion of ions

A

selesctive probability to certain ions
sodium pottasium pumps

88
Q

sodium (in or out)

89
Q

chroride (in or out)

90
Q

Potassium (in or out)

91
Q

NA+ ions

A

they are more outside, but they are under the pressure to be inside. They don’t though, because sodium ion channels are closed in resting neurons (voltage gated)

electrostatic pressure and random motion keeo them out

92
Q

K+ ions

A

they are inside but they leak through leak channels because the K+ ion channels are iopen in resting neurons. This said, they come back inside and do not exit all because of electrostaitc pressure

93
Q

how does a resting membraine potential stay constant?

A

sodium potential pump

94
Q

sodium potential pump

A

transport 3 Na+ ions out per every 2 K+ ions in.

95
Q

where do neurotransmitters bind

A

at postsynaptic receptors. neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers. they then bind and cause electrical changes (depolarize or hyperpolarize)

96
Q

depolarization

A

more positive

97
Q

hyper polarization

A

more negative

98
Q

when NA+ is let in, what happens to polarization

A

depolarize

99
Q

when K+ is let out, what happens to polarization

A

hyperpolarize

100
Q

two posynaptic potentials

A

exibatory and inhibatory

101
Q

exibatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

depolarize
increase likelihood neuron will fire

102
Q

inhibatory postsynaptic potential

A

hyperpolarize
decrease likelihood neuron will fire

103
Q

borh EPSP and IPSP

A
  • travel passively from their site of generation (the synapse and travels alone dendrites and or cell body)
  • decreental- they get smaller as they travel
  • graded: weak stimuli elicit small PsPs; strong stimuli elicit large PSps
104
Q

integration of IPSP and EPSP must result in a potential of what to general an action potential

105
Q

spatial summation

A

integration of events happening at different places

106
Q

temporal summation

A

integration of events happening at different times

107
Q

Action potential

A

when membrane potential goes from about -70mV to +50mV

108
Q

Action potentials do not have graded responses. what does this mean

A

the maginitude is NOT related to the intensity (unlike PSPs) but the rate of neural firing IS.

109
Q

refractory period

A

prevent backwards movement of APs and limit the rate of firing (think of the blue part in the video). Two types: absolute and relative

110
Q

absolute refractory period

A

impossible to initiate another action potential

111
Q

relative refractory period

A

difficult, but possible, to initiate another action potential

112
Q

Action conduction of unmyelinated APs

A
  • nondecremental (doesnt get weaker as it travels)
  • Slower: slowler because the signal must be regenerated at every point along the axon membrane, rather than jumping between nodes of Ranvier (as in saltatory conduction).
  • The action potential at one location depolarizes the adjacent segment of the axonal membrane, reaching the threshold for the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.
    Sodium ions (Na⁺) flow into the cell through these channels, further depolarizing the membrane and generating a new action potential at that location.
  • Although each segment of the membrane generates a new action potential, the process is so rapid and seamless that the action potential appears to move as a continuous wave down the axon.
  • This cycle is repeated along the entire length of the axon until the action potential reaches the axon terminal, where it triggers neurotransmitter release.
113
Q

PSP vs AP

A

IPSP/EPSP
* decremental
* fast
* passive

APs
* nondecremental
* slower
* active (unmyelinated) and passive (myelinated)

114
Q

AP conduction myelinated

A
  • passive- occurs along each myelin segment to next node of ranvier
  • new action potential generated at each node
  • instant conduction results in faster conduction
  • called “saltatory conduction”- kinda like it jumps
115
Q

Hodgkin-Huxley Model

A

The model used to describe action potentials and how they work. It was based on squid motor neurons(bigger and easier to see changed). Cereberal neurons behave in ways that are not always predicted by the model, because this is based on a hypothesis.

116
Q

biopsychology as definied by Pinel

A

scientific study of the BIOLOGY of behavior

117
Q

psychology

A

scientific study of behavior

118
Q

neuroanatomy

A

study of structure of nervous system

119
Q

neurochemistry

A

study of chemical bases of neural activity

120
Q

neuroendocrinology

A

study of interactions between nervous system and endocrine system

121
Q

neuropathology

A

study of nervous system dysfunction

122
Q

neuropharmacology

A

study of effects of drugs on neural system

123
Q

neurophysiology

A

study of functions and activities of nervous system

124
Q

physciological psychology

A

neuro mechanisms of behaviors. controlled experiments with direct manipulation and recording of brain

125
Q

neuropathology

A

psychological effects of brain damage or brain dysfunction

126
Q

psychophysiology

A

relation between psysiological activity and psychological processes in humans

127
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

neural bases of cognition (i.e. thought, memory, attention, etc). through functional brain imaging

128
Q

comparative psychology

A

comparing different species to understand evolution, genetics and adaptiveness. lab or ethological research

129
Q

signal protein

A

send signals about surroundings or environment. associated with metabolic receptors

130
Q

channel protein

A

transport water and molecules. associated with ionotropic receptors

131
Q

small neurotransmitters

A

various kinds. Small neurotransmitters are a category of chemical messengers used by neurons to communicate. They are synthesized in the terminal buttons (axon terminals) and stored in synaptic vesicles until they are released into the synaptic cleft during neurotransmission.

132
Q

large neurotransmitters

A

these are neuropeptides. they are assembeled in the cell body, they are packaged in vesicles, and then transported to axon terminal

133
Q

neurotransmitter def

A

endogenous (produced naturally in your body) chemical substance that elicits or modifies a synaptic response. when neurons fire, they release neurotransmitters from terminal buttons. they then diffuse across synaptic clefts and interact with specialized receptor molecules. they will either depolarize or hyperolarize the postsynaptic neuron.

134
Q

criteria for neurotransmitters(5)

A
  1. there must be a chemical produced within neuron
  2. the chemical must also be FOUND withIN the neuron
  3. after a chemical is released and does it’s job, it must be inactivated. this can happen through reuptake mechanism or my enzyme that stops action of chemical. (also autoreceptors can tell signals to slow down)
  4. when a chemical is released, it must act on postsynaptic receptor and cause biological effect
  5. if a chemical is applied on postsynaptic membrane, it should have the same effect as when it is released by a neuron
135
Q

Otto leowls experiment

A

Otto Loewi’s groundbreaking experiment in 1921 demonstrated the chemical nature of neural communication and led to the discovery of acetylcholine (ACh) as the first identified neurotransmitter.

Setup:

Loewi used two frog hearts:

Heart 1: Intact with its vagus nerve attached.
Heart 2: Without the vagus nerve.
Both hearts were placed in separate chambers filled with a saline solution, and the solutions were allowed to flow between the chambers.

Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve:

Loewi electrically stimulated the vagus nerve of Heart 1, which is known to slow the heart rate.
Observation:

As expected, the stimulation caused Heart 1 to slow its beating.
A short time later, Heart 2 (which had no vagus nerve) also began to beat more slowly.
Conclusion:

The slowing of Heart 2 was caused by a chemical substance released by Heart 1 into the saline solution. This chemical diffused to the second heart through the shared solution.

Loewi identified this chemical as acetylcholine (ACh).
ACh was released from the vagus nerve terminals in Heart 1, causing the slowing of its heartbeat. When it traveled to Heart 2, it exerted the same effect.

136
Q

receptor heterogenity allows for what

A

different effects

137
Q

how many NTs does a neuron use

138
Q

how many receptors do NT’s affect?

A

multiple. there are different receptor subtypes for a given one NT

139
Q

NT life cycle

A

processes involved in their synthesis, release, action, and clearance, all of which determine how they function and influence neural communication. These steps ensure precise control of neurotransmission and shape the timing and strength of their effects.

they have distinct life cycles that affect time and influence

140
Q

excytosis

A

the process of neurotransmitter release

141
Q

arrical of AP to terminal process

A

When an action potential (AP) reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters through this process:

  1. Arrival of the Action Potential:
    The AP travels down the axon and reaches the presynaptic terminal. This depolarizes terminal membrane
  2. Opening of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels:
    The depolarization activates voltage-gated calcium (Ca⁺) channels in the membrane of the terminal. These channels open, allowing calcium ions (Ca⁺) to flow into the terminal.
  3. Vesicle Fusion with the Membrane:
    Entry of calcium interacts with synaptic vesicles.
  4. Neurotransmitter Release:
    Once the vesicles fuse with the membrane, they release their contents (neurotransmitters) into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis.
    These neurotransmitters then diffuse across the cleft to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, initiating a response.
142
Q

how do NT activate receptors

A

a released NT produces a signal in the postsynaptic neuron by binding to the receptors.

143
Q

ligand

A

molecule that binds to another

144
Q

is a NT a liagand

A

yes, a ligand of its receptor

145
Q

acetycholine receptor subtypes

A

nicotinic and muscarinic

146
Q

nictonitc receptor

A

a type of ionotropic receptor for ACh. it has five subunites that form a ligand gated ion channel through the cell membrane. the subunits are numberd

147
Q

muscarinic receptor

A

a type of metabotropic receptor for ACH

148
Q

types of receptors

A

ionotropic and metabotropic

149
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

very fast. associated with ligand-activated ion channels (aka channel protein movement?). NT binds to post synaptic receptor and associated ion channel opens or closes, causing a PSP.

150
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

Metabotropic Receptors are a type of neurotransmitter receptor that indirectly mediate cellular responses through signal proteins and G-proteins. These receptors play an essential role in modulating slower but longer-lasting and diverse effects within the cell

process:
- A neurotransmitter (NT) binds to the metabotropic receptor on the cell membrane.
- The binding of the neurotransmitter activates an associated G-protein. This causes one of its subunits to break away from the receptor complex.
Action of G-protein Subunit:
- The G-protein subunit can do one of two things:
1. Bind to an Ion Channel: This directly causes the ion channel to open or close, altering the flow of ions across the membrane.
2. Trigger Second Messenger: The G-protein subunit activates intracellular signaling pathways by stimulating the production of a second messenger.

NT messenger 2- wide variety of effects (i.e. can move to the nucleus and influence gene expression)

151
Q

dendrodendritic synapse

A

dendrite send signal to other dendrite

152
Q

exodendritic synapse

A

ason synapse on dendritic spine of another

153
Q

if NA+ channels open, what kind of PSP happens

154
Q

if K+ ions are opened what kind of PSP occurs

155
Q

axoextrocellular

A

terminal w no specific target (secrete transmitter into extracelluluar fluid)

156
Q

axosomatic

A

axon terminal end on cell body

157
Q

axosynaptic

A

axon terminal end on another terminal

158
Q

axoaxonic

A

axon terminal end on another axon

159
Q

axosecretary

A

axon terminal end on tiny blood vessel (neurotransmitter goes directly into blood)

160
Q

presynaptic facilitation

A

axoaxonic that increase signal (aka yelling it)

161
Q

presynaptic inhibitation

A

axoaxonic that decrease signal (aka whisper it)

162
Q

small NT vs neuropeptides

A

Small neurotransmitter
* released directy into synapse
* activate either ionotropic or metabotripic receptors that act directly on ion channels
* transmission of rapid and brief signals

Neuropeptides
* released diffusely
* most bind to metabotropic receptors that act through 2nd messengers
* transmission of slow and longer lasting signals

163
Q

the nervous system is divided into two sections

A

CNS and PNS

164
Q

what is in CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

165
Q

PNS

A

split into somatic and automic nervous sustem

166
Q

somatic nervous system

A

interaction with external environment. Afferent and efferent

167
Q

autonomics nervous system

A

afferent. sensory. split into sympathetic and parasympathetic

168
Q

sympathetic

A

fight or flight. thoracic and lumbar. second stage neurons are far from target organ

169
Q

parasympathetic

A

resting. cranial and sacral. second stage neurons are near the target organ

170
Q

how many pairs of cranial nerves

A
  1. they project from the brain(NOT spinal cord) and include autonomic motor fibers of cranial nerves.
171
Q

arachnoid membrane

A

spider like web around brain

172
Q

make a schematic diagram about neural circuits

173
Q

chroroid plexuses

A

network of capillaries. produce cerebrospinal fluid

174
Q

The Coolidge effect

A

males (and, to a lesser extent, females) of many species exhibit renewed sexual interest and arousal when introduced to new receptive partners, even after having mated to satiety with previous partners. This effect is thought to be driven by evolutionary pressures to maximize reproductive success.

175
Q

Pure vs. applied research

A

Pure- motivated by curiosity of researcher. only done to gain knowledge.

Applied research- intended to bring about direct benefit to humankind

176
Q

Experiments vs. non-experiments

A

experiement- used to study causation. Research methods in which the researcher actively manipulates one or more independent variables (IVs) to observe their effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables to establish causality.

non-experiment- Methods in which variables are observed and measured without direct manipulation. These studies focus on describing relationships, exploring phenomena, or making predictions but cannot establish causal relationships.

177
Q

Principle of converging operations

A

strengths of one approach can compensate for weaknesses or others

178
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome – what is it (what are the symptoms), what causes
it, what parts of the brain are damaged, how is it treated? Discuss how
converging operations led to our modern understanding of the disease.

A

severe memory loss. commony occurs in heavy drinkers. caused by brain damage from thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. At first they thought it was caused completely by alcohol but converging operations showed it was thiamine.

179
Q

Comparative neurobiology (for example, size of different brain regions
across different species)

A

the study of similarities and differences in the structure and function of nervous systems across species.

180
Q

Important features of the neuronal cell membrane

A

channel proteins
and signal proteins embedded within the membrane

181
Q

Types of stains-Golgi vs. Nissl

A

Golgi stain expose block of neural tissue to potassium dichromate and solver nitrate. stains the neurons black and you can see the overall shape of neurons

Nissl stain- cresyl violet penetrate all cells on a slide but bind to molecules that are most prevenland in neuron cell bodies. used to estimate number of cells in an area.

182
Q

How to measure the membrane potential

A

place tip of electro inside neuron and tip of another outside in extracellular fluid. the intracellular ones = microelectrodes. when both are in extracellular, difference is 0. but if tip of microelectrode is in neuron at rest, it is -70.

183
Q

Explain the ionic basis of the action potential- Be able to draw and label an
action potential

A

RISING PHASE
when there is a sufficiently large EPSP, sodium channels in axon membrane open and Na+ enters quickly and the membrane potential goes from -70 to +50. then the change triggers the opening of potassium channels. Then K+ are released out and when the AP is near its peak the sodium channels close.

REPOLARIZATION
next, the continued K+ exiting causes repolarization. once repolarization is achieved. the potassium channels close gradually.

HYPERPOLARIZATION
since the K+ channels close slowly, too many K+ exit and the neuron is hyperpolarized for a small amount of time.

184
Q

Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- definition

A

Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs are graded changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron in response to neurotransmitter binding at synapses. They occur at dendrites or the soma. They are also graded.
ISPS or ESPS.

Action Potential (AP):
APs are rapid, all-or-none electrical impulses that propagate along the axon of a neuron, triggered when the membrane potential reaches a specific threshold. They are all or none.

185
Q

Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- duration

A

Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
Long lasting.

Action Potential (AP):
brief.

186
Q

Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- ion channels

A

Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
ligand gated. PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.

Action Potential (AP):
voltage gated. APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.

187
Q

Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- function

A

Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.

Action Potential (AP):
APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.

188
Q

Antidromic vs. orthodromic stimulation

A

if sufficient intensity of electrostimulation is applied on midpoint of axon, 2 APs are created.
1. antidromic- one AP travels along axon back to cell body
2. othodromic- other AP travels along axon toward terminal buttons.

189
Q

where are action potentials generated

A

axon initial segment

190
Q

Cerebral cortex (what is located in it)

A

neocortex, hippocampus

191
Q

telencephalon (things in it)

A
  • cerebral cortex
  • major fissures
  • major gryi
  • four lobes
  • limbic system
  • basal ganglia
  • cerebral commissures
192
Q

diencephalon (things in it)

A

thalamus
hypothalamus
optic chasm
pituitary gland

193
Q

mesencephalon (what is in it)

A

tectum and tegmentum

194
Q

Metencephalon(what is in it)

A

recticular formation
pons
cerebrellum

195
Q

myelencephalon(what is in it)

A

reticular formation

Junior Year- Mac- Fall 2024 (4 decks)

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