Behavioral Neuro Test 1 Flashcards
blood brain barrier
a type of physical protection that also leads to chemical protection. It is tightly packed cells of blood vessels and it ends up also protecting entry of many molecules
what are the 3 physical protections of the brain?
skull, meninges(dura, arachoind, and subarachnoid), and cereboralspinal fluid
what is circle of willis
an arrangesment of arteries that supply blood to the brain. the circle of willis is in the center (sort of like a roundabout)
what does circle of willis do?
it creates collaterals in cerebral circulation. if a part of the circle is blocked, blood from other vessels are still able to reach the route. its like a backup route.
what are neurons
special cells for reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals. can come in many shapes and sizes
channel protein of the cell membrane
ionotripic receptor
signal protein of cell membrane
metabotropic receptor
how are neurons classified?
by the number of processes coming off of them
glial cells do what
support neurons and they communicate with each other and other neurons
this is a new find! very cool!
5 classes of glial cells
- oligondendrocyte
- schwann cells
- microglia
- astrocytes
- ependymal cells
oligondendrocytes
they are rich in myelin and create the myelin sheaths in the CNS
schwann cells
they are rich in myelin and create myelin in PNS. So same as oligondendrocytes, but in the PNS
microglia
they are involved in the response to injury or diseases
astrocytes
these are the largest glia. they are star shaped and help with support, contact in neurons, blood vessels, etc)
ependymal cells
they line the walls of the ventricles and produce cereboralspinal fluid
gray matter in spinal cord
found on the inner areas. they are mainly cell bodies
white matter in spinal cord
they are on the outer area, they are mainly made of myelinated axons
dorsal side of spinal cord
the dorsal side in afferent and sensory
ventral side of spinal cord
this side is efferent and motor
what are the major DIVISIONS of the brain
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
forebrain is made up of what
- telencephalon
- diencephalon
midbrain is made up of what
mesencephalon (another name for midbrain)
hindbrain is made up of what
- metencephalon
- myelencephalon
myelencephalon (what is located in it + function
This is the medulla, specifically.
* it has tracts that carry signals
* the orgin of the recitcular formation is based here
* it regulates many things such as cardiac, circulatory, repiratory and other functions that keep you alive
* the rahe nuclei is located here
raphe nuclei
located in myelencepahalon. this is where serotonin producing neurons begin
recticular formation path
starts in medulla (myelencephalon) and continues up to metencephalon and mesenecephalon)
metencephalon
this is the pons and cerebellum
* has MANYY tracts
pons
the “switchboard” of the brain. connects cerebral cortex to cerebellum. it regulates REM sleep, posture, etc.
cerebellum
this regulates coordination, sensormotor control, memory for motor response (i.e. eyeblinking and other simple motor memories)
mesencephalon
the midbrain
* made up of tectum and tegmentum
tectum(where and what is in it)
the dorsal area of midbrain.
superior and inferior colliculi are here.
superior colliculi function
eye: visual-motor processing, controlling eye movement, gaze, etc)
inferior colliculi
located in dorsal area of tectum. auditory and locating sound spatially
tegmentum (plus main things located there)
the mid and ventral areas of the midbrain
* recticular formation
* tracts of passage
* preiaquedicutal gray
* substantia niagra
* Ventral temental area (VTA)
* and red nucelus
periaqueductal gray
located in tegmentum. tells us a LOT about behaviour in an animal.
* pain modulation (opioid receptors are here)
* defensive behaviors (also freezing)
* female sexual behavior (lordosis is a way to show sexual receptiveness)
substantia nigra (location and functions)
located in tegmentum
* sensorimotor movements
* dopomingeric neurons
* associative learning
* reward
ventral tegmental area (location and function)
located in tegmentum
* associative learning
* reward
red nucleus
located in tegmentum
* motor control
* limb movement
dicencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
thalamus- location + functions + what is in it
Located in diencephalon.
this has lots of different nuclei and cortical projections and functions including…
* sensory relay nuclei
* and other cognitive functions
list all the sensory relay nuclei
- lateral geniculate nuclei
- medial geniculate nuclei
- ventral posterior nuclei
- parvicellular protion of centroposteromedial nuclei
lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN)
focused on visual
medial geniculate nuclei(MGN)
auditory
ventral posterior nuclei
somatosensory system
parvicellular portion of centroposeromedial nuceli (VPMpc)
gustatory (taste)
cognitive/integrative functions of thalamus
mediodorsal nuclei ( a type of thalamic nuclei) projects to the frontal cortex. this can help with some decision making.
hypothalamus. location, functions + subregions
Located in dicencephalon
FUNCTIONS
* regulation of motivated behaviors (ie sleeping, eating, sex, etc)
* temp regulation and circadian cycles
* regulates reclose of hormones from pituitary glands
* sexually dimorphic nuclei (medial preoptic area) and is bigger in males than female brains
* anatomically mammilary bodies are also here
SUBREGIONS
lateral
* ventromedial
* medial preoptic area
* paraventicular
* suprachiasmatic nucleus
mammilary bodies
certain types of memories
lateral hypothalamus
orexin- feeding and sleeping/arousal
ventromedial hypothalamus
feeding, female sexual behaviour, fear, defensive emtional
medial preoptic area of hypothamalus
male sexual behaviors
paraventricular area of hypothalamus
stress and pitutary hormone
suprachiasmatic neuclus of hypothalamus
circadian rythms
convolutions in the brain
serve to increase surface area
gyrocephalic brain
has many convolutions
lissencephalic brain
has no convolutions
longitudinal fissure
groove that separates the hemispheres
corpus callosum
the largest cerebral commissure
list all the commissures of the brain
- corpus callosum (largest)
- anterior commissure
- posterior commissure
- hippocampal commissure (the commissure of the fornix,, its reward based)
- habenular commissure (proccessing of adverse events. bad things or lack of rewards)
what are all the cerebral lobes
- frontal
- parietal
- temporal
- occipital
frontal lobe
- posterior area- motor and broccas area (speech + language productions)
- anterior area- cogntiive/executive functions
parietal lobe
- somatosensory
- proprioception(being aware where you are in space)
- attention
temporal lobe (3 parts)
- medial
- inferior
- superior
medial temporal
certain memories
inferior temporal
identification of complex visual patterns
superior temporal
hearing + language + spoken speech comprehension (wernickes area)
occipital lobe
vision
neocortex
6 layers of cells. This is about 90% of the human cerebral cortex
allocortex
3 layers of cells- evolutionarily the orlder areas. hippocampus is allocortex
neocortical organization
functional columns. neurons within a given column share functional properties. ie respond to visual stimular with similar oritneted edges. cells of the columns have specific preferences.
somatosensory system resoonds to specific types of touch
subcortical stuctures
- limbic system
- basal ganglia system
limbic system(location, function, what is within it)
telencephalon
regulation of motivated behavior. mammillary bodies
hippocampus
amygdala
forix
cingulate cortex
septum
basal ganglia system (location, function, + what is within it)
Location: telencephelon
Function : performance of voluntary motor responces and certain kinds of decision making.
* dorsal stiatum (caudate + Putamen)
* globus palllidus
dorsal stiatum is made up of what
caudate nuclues and putamen
anatomy of diffuse modulatory systems
each system has a small set of neurons at the core. neurons of these arise from the central core (mainly brain stem) and each one can inluence many (i.e. axon may contact more than 100,000 postynaptic neurons)
noreprinephrine
NE
* orgin: locus coerulus (in pons)
* sends to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebellum, midbrain + spinal cord
* purpose- attention, arrounsal, sleep-wake, mood, pain, anxiety + some memory and learning
dopamine
DA
* orgin 1: substantia nigagra (midbrain) aka nigrostaital system
* sends to: dorsal stiatum
* purpose: initiation of voluntary movements (parkinsons disease happens with shrotage of DA)
- orgin 2: ventral tegmental area (midbrain) aka mesocorticolimbic system
- sends to: frontal cortex, ventral stiatum (nucleus accumbens) and other limbic systems
- purpose: associative earning, reward, motivation, addiction, cognitice control, motivation, emotion
serotonin
5-HT
all in raphe nuclei (pons, medulla, midbrain)
* orgin 1: medulla
* projects to: spinal cord
* pain related sensory signals
- orgin 2: pons and midbrain
- projects to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, bsala ganglia, cerebellum
- purpose: arousal, wakefulness, sleep wake, sleep states, mood, emotional behaviour
Acetylcholine
ACH
* orgin : places in basal forebrain
* suborgin 1: medial septal nuclus
* to: cholinergic innervation of hoopocamus
* suborgin 2: nuclus basalis of substantia innominata
* to: cholinergic innervation of cortex
overall purpose: arousal, sleep wake, attention, learning, memory
//
- Orgin 2: pontomesencephalotegmental area (pons + minbrain tegmentum)
- suborgin 1: PPT pedunclopontine tegmental nucleus)
* to: cholinergic innervation of thalums, basal ganglia, and some of forebrain area - suborgin 2: LDT (lateral dorsal tegmental nucleus)
- to: cholinergic innervation of thalamus, prefontal cortex and habenula
- suborgin 1: PPT pedunclopontine tegmental nucleus)
Overall purpose: regulation of sensory relay nuclei (kinda like a guard…is this information important enough to pass on? i.e. you dont always see your nose but its htere in your vision)
anterograde tracing
forward. tracing where axons are projecting away from an area. tracers: phaseolous vulgaris leucoaggluntinin (PHA-L)
retrograde tracers
bacward. froming from hwere axons are protecting into an area. tracers:
1. cholera toxin subunit B (CTb)
2. fluro-gold (FG)
Resting membrane potential
different in electrical charge between inside and out of the cell.
* inside = (-)
* Outside = (+)
resting membrain potential is about -70mV
is membrane polarized or not?
yes it is polarized. it carries a charge
factors that contribute to even ion distribution
random motion and electrostatic pressure
random motion
particles tend to move down their concentration gradient
electrostatic pressure
like repels like,,, opposites attract
factors that lead to uneven distribtion of ions
selesctive probability to certain ions
sodium pottasium pumps
sodium (in or out)
outside
chroride (in or out)
outside
Potassium (in or out)
inside
NA+ ions
they are more outside, but they are under the pressure to be inside. They don’t though, because sodium ion channels are closed in resting neurons (voltage gated)
electrostatic pressure and random motion keeo them out
K+ ions
they are inside but they leak through leak channels because the K+ ion channels are iopen in resting neurons. This said, they come back inside and do not exit all because of electrostaitc pressure
how does a resting membraine potential stay constant?
sodium potential pump
sodium potential pump
transport 3 Na+ ions out per every 2 K+ ions in.
where do neurotransmitters bind
at postsynaptic receptors. neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers. they then bind and cause electrical changes (depolarize or hyperpolarize)
depolarization
more positive
hyper polarization
more negative
when NA+ is let in, what happens to polarization
depolarize
when K+ is let out, what happens to polarization
hyperpolarize
two posynaptic potentials
exibatory and inhibatory
exibatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
depolarize
increase likelihood neuron will fire
inhibatory postsynaptic potential
hyperpolarize
decrease likelihood neuron will fire
borh EPSP and IPSP
- travel passively from their site of generation (the synapse and travels alone dendrites and or cell body)
- decreental- they get smaller as they travel
- graded: weak stimuli elicit small PsPs; strong stimuli elicit large PSps
integration of IPSP and EPSP must result in a potential of what to general an action potential
-65mV
spatial summation
integration of events happening at different places
temporal summation
integration of events happening at different times
Action potential
when membrane potential goes from about -70mV to +50mV
Action potentials do not have graded responses. what does this mean
the maginitude is NOT related to the intensity (unlike PSPs) but the rate of neural firing IS.
refractory period
prevent backwards movement of APs and limit the rate of firing (think of the blue part in the video). Two types: absolute and relative
absolute refractory period
impossible to initiate another action potential
relative refractory period
difficult, but possible, to initiate another action potential
Action conduction of unmyelinated APs
- nondecremental (doesnt get weaker as it travels)
- Slower: slowler because the signal must be regenerated at every point along the axon membrane, rather than jumping between nodes of Ranvier (as in saltatory conduction).
- The action potential at one location depolarizes the adjacent segment of the axonal membrane, reaching the threshold for the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.
Sodium ions (Na⁺) flow into the cell through these channels, further depolarizing the membrane and generating a new action potential at that location. - Although each segment of the membrane generates a new action potential, the process is so rapid and seamless that the action potential appears to move as a continuous wave down the axon.
- This cycle is repeated along the entire length of the axon until the action potential reaches the axon terminal, where it triggers neurotransmitter release.
PSP vs AP
IPSP/EPSP
* decremental
* fast
* passive
APs
* nondecremental
* slower
* active (unmyelinated) and passive (myelinated)
AP conduction myelinated
- passive- occurs along each myelin segment to next node of ranvier
- new action potential generated at each node
- instant conduction results in faster conduction
- called “saltatory conduction”- kinda like it jumps
Hodgkin-Huxley Model
The model used to describe action potentials and how they work. It was based on squid motor neurons(bigger and easier to see changed). Cereberal neurons behave in ways that are not always predicted by the model, because this is based on a hypothesis.
biopsychology as definied by Pinel
scientific study of the BIOLOGY of behavior
psychology
scientific study of behavior
neuroanatomy
study of structure of nervous system
neurochemistry
study of chemical bases of neural activity
neuroendocrinology
study of interactions between nervous system and endocrine system
neuropathology
study of nervous system dysfunction
neuropharmacology
study of effects of drugs on neural system
neurophysiology
study of functions and activities of nervous system
physciological psychology
neuro mechanisms of behaviors. controlled experiments with direct manipulation and recording of brain
neuropathology
psychological effects of brain damage or brain dysfunction
psychophysiology
relation between psysiological activity and psychological processes in humans
cognitive neuroscience
neural bases of cognition (i.e. thought, memory, attention, etc). through functional brain imaging
comparative psychology
comparing different species to understand evolution, genetics and adaptiveness. lab or ethological research
signal protein
send signals about surroundings or environment. associated with metabolic receptors
channel protein
transport water and molecules. associated with ionotropic receptors
small neurotransmitters
various kinds. Small neurotransmitters are a category of chemical messengers used by neurons to communicate. They are synthesized in the terminal buttons (axon terminals) and stored in synaptic vesicles until they are released into the synaptic cleft during neurotransmission.
large neurotransmitters
these are neuropeptides. they are assembeled in the cell body, they are packaged in vesicles, and then transported to axon terminal
neurotransmitter def
endogenous (produced naturally in your body) chemical substance that elicits or modifies a synaptic response. when neurons fire, they release neurotransmitters from terminal buttons. they then diffuse across synaptic clefts and interact with specialized receptor molecules. they will either depolarize or hyperolarize the postsynaptic neuron.
criteria for neurotransmitters(5)
- there must be a chemical produced within neuron
- the chemical must also be FOUND withIN the neuron
- after a chemical is released and does it’s job, it must be inactivated. this can happen through reuptake mechanism or my enzyme that stops action of chemical. (also autoreceptors can tell signals to slow down)
- when a chemical is released, it must act on postsynaptic receptor and cause biological effect
- if a chemical is applied on postsynaptic membrane, it should have the same effect as when it is released by a neuron
Otto leowls experiment
Otto Loewi’s groundbreaking experiment in 1921 demonstrated the chemical nature of neural communication and led to the discovery of acetylcholine (ACh) as the first identified neurotransmitter.
Setup:
Loewi used two frog hearts:
Heart 1: Intact with its vagus nerve attached.
Heart 2: Without the vagus nerve.
Both hearts were placed in separate chambers filled with a saline solution, and the solutions were allowed to flow between the chambers.
Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve:
Loewi electrically stimulated the vagus nerve of Heart 1, which is known to slow the heart rate.
Observation:
As expected, the stimulation caused Heart 1 to slow its beating.
A short time later, Heart 2 (which had no vagus nerve) also began to beat more slowly.
Conclusion:
The slowing of Heart 2 was caused by a chemical substance released by Heart 1 into the saline solution. This chemical diffused to the second heart through the shared solution.
Loewi identified this chemical as acetylcholine (ACh).
ACh was released from the vagus nerve terminals in Heart 1, causing the slowing of its heartbeat. When it traveled to Heart 2, it exerted the same effect.
receptor heterogenity allows for what
different effects
how many NTs does a neuron use
multiple!
how many receptors do NT’s affect?
multiple. there are different receptor subtypes for a given one NT
NT life cycle
processes involved in their synthesis, release, action, and clearance, all of which determine how they function and influence neural communication. These steps ensure precise control of neurotransmission and shape the timing and strength of their effects.
they have distinct life cycles that affect time and influence
excytosis
the process of neurotransmitter release
arrical of AP to terminal process
When an action potential (AP) reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters through this process:
- Arrival of the Action Potential:
The AP travels down the axon and reaches the presynaptic terminal. This depolarizes terminal membrane - Opening of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels:
The depolarization activates voltage-gated calcium (Ca⁺) channels in the membrane of the terminal. These channels open, allowing calcium ions (Ca⁺) to flow into the terminal. - Vesicle Fusion with the Membrane:
Entry of calcium interacts with synaptic vesicles. - Neurotransmitter Release:
Once the vesicles fuse with the membrane, they release their contents (neurotransmitters) into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis.
These neurotransmitters then diffuse across the cleft to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, initiating a response.
how do NT activate receptors
a released NT produces a signal in the postsynaptic neuron by binding to the receptors.
ligand
molecule that binds to another
is a NT a liagand
yes, a ligand of its receptor
acetycholine receptor subtypes
nicotinic and muscarinic
nictonitc receptor
a type of ionotropic receptor for ACh. it has five subunites that form a ligand gated ion channel through the cell membrane. the subunits are numberd
muscarinic receptor
a type of metabotropic receptor for ACH
types of receptors
ionotropic and metabotropic
ionotropic receptors
very fast. associated with ligand-activated ion channels (aka channel protein movement?). NT binds to post synaptic receptor and associated ion channel opens or closes, causing a PSP.
metabotropic receptors
Metabotropic Receptors are a type of neurotransmitter receptor that indirectly mediate cellular responses through signal proteins and G-proteins. These receptors play an essential role in modulating slower but longer-lasting and diverse effects within the cell
process:
- A neurotransmitter (NT) binds to the metabotropic receptor on the cell membrane.
- The binding of the neurotransmitter activates an associated G-protein. This causes one of its subunits to break away from the receptor complex.
Action of G-protein Subunit:
- The G-protein subunit can do one of two things:
1. Bind to an Ion Channel: This directly causes the ion channel to open or close, altering the flow of ions across the membrane.
2. Trigger Second Messenger: The G-protein subunit activates intracellular signaling pathways by stimulating the production of a second messenger.
NT messenger 2- wide variety of effects (i.e. can move to the nucleus and influence gene expression)
dendrodendritic synapse
dendrite send signal to other dendrite
exodendritic synapse
ason synapse on dendritic spine of another
if NA+ channels open, what kind of PSP happens
EPSP
if K+ ions are opened what kind of PSP occurs
IPSP
axoextrocellular
terminal w no specific target (secrete transmitter into extracelluluar fluid)
axosomatic
axon terminal end on cell body
axosynaptic
axon terminal end on another terminal
axoaxonic
axon terminal end on another axon
axosecretary
axon terminal end on tiny blood vessel (neurotransmitter goes directly into blood)
presynaptic facilitation
axoaxonic that increase signal (aka yelling it)
presynaptic inhibitation
axoaxonic that decrease signal (aka whisper it)
small NT vs neuropeptides
Small neurotransmitter
* released directy into synapse
* activate either ionotropic or metabotripic receptors that act directly on ion channels
* transmission of rapid and brief signals
Neuropeptides
* released diffusely
* most bind to metabotropic receptors that act through 2nd messengers
* transmission of slow and longer lasting signals
the nervous system is divided into two sections
CNS and PNS
what is in CNS
brain and spinal cord
PNS
split into somatic and automic nervous sustem
somatic nervous system
interaction with external environment. Afferent and efferent
autonomics nervous system
afferent. sensory. split into sympathetic and parasympathetic
sympathetic
fight or flight. thoracic and lumbar. second stage neurons are far from target organ
parasympathetic
resting. cranial and sacral. second stage neurons are near the target organ
how many pairs of cranial nerves
- they project from the brain(NOT spinal cord) and include autonomic motor fibers of cranial nerves.
arachnoid membrane
spider like web around brain
make a schematic diagram about neural circuits
do it
chroroid plexuses
network of capillaries. produce cerebrospinal fluid
The Coolidge effect
males (and, to a lesser extent, females) of many species exhibit renewed sexual interest and arousal when introduced to new receptive partners, even after having mated to satiety with previous partners. This effect is thought to be driven by evolutionary pressures to maximize reproductive success.
Pure vs. applied research
Pure- motivated by curiosity of researcher. only done to gain knowledge.
Applied research- intended to bring about direct benefit to humankind
Experiments vs. non-experiments
experiement- used to study causation. Research methods in which the researcher actively manipulates one or more independent variables (IVs) to observe their effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables to establish causality.
non-experiment- Methods in which variables are observed and measured without direct manipulation. These studies focus on describing relationships, exploring phenomena, or making predictions but cannot establish causal relationships.
Principle of converging operations
strengths of one approach can compensate for weaknesses or others
Korsakoff’s syndrome – what is it (what are the symptoms), what causes
it, what parts of the brain are damaged, how is it treated? Discuss how
converging operations led to our modern understanding of the disease.
severe memory loss. commony occurs in heavy drinkers. caused by brain damage from thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. At first they thought it was caused completely by alcohol but converging operations showed it was thiamine.
Comparative neurobiology (for example, size of different brain regions
across different species)
the study of similarities and differences in the structure and function of nervous systems across species.
Important features of the neuronal cell membrane
channel proteins
and signal proteins embedded within the membrane
Types of stains-Golgi vs. Nissl
Golgi stain expose block of neural tissue to potassium dichromate and solver nitrate. stains the neurons black and you can see the overall shape of neurons
Nissl stain- cresyl violet penetrate all cells on a slide but bind to molecules that are most prevenland in neuron cell bodies. used to estimate number of cells in an area.
How to measure the membrane potential
place tip of electro inside neuron and tip of another outside in extracellular fluid. the intracellular ones = microelectrodes. when both are in extracellular, difference is 0. but if tip of microelectrode is in neuron at rest, it is -70.
Explain the ionic basis of the action potential- Be able to draw and label an
action potential
RISING PHASE
when there is a sufficiently large EPSP, sodium channels in axon membrane open and Na+ enters quickly and the membrane potential goes from -70 to +50. then the change triggers the opening of potassium channels. Then K+ are released out and when the AP is near its peak the sodium channels close.
REPOLARIZATION
next, the continued K+ exiting causes repolarization. once repolarization is achieved. the potassium channels close gradually.
HYPERPOLARIZATION
since the K+ channels close slowly, too many K+ exit and the neuron is hyperpolarized for a small amount of time.
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- definition
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs are graded changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron in response to neurotransmitter binding at synapses. They occur at dendrites or the soma. They are also graded.
ISPS or ESPS.
Action Potential (AP):
APs are rapid, all-or-none electrical impulses that propagate along the axon of a neuron, triggered when the membrane potential reaches a specific threshold. They are all or none.
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- duration
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
Long lasting.
Action Potential (AP):
brief.
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- ion channels
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
ligand gated. PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.
Action Potential (AP):
voltage gated. APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- function
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.
Action Potential (AP):
APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.
Antidromic vs. orthodromic stimulation
if sufficient intensity of electrostimulation is applied on midpoint of axon, 2 APs are created.
1. antidromic- one AP travels along axon back to cell body
2. othodromic- other AP travels along axon toward terminal buttons.
where are action potentials generated
axon initial segment
Cerebral cortex (what is located in it)
neocortex, hippocampus
telencephalon (things in it)
- cerebral cortex
- major fissures
- major gryi
- four lobes
- limbic system
- basal ganglia
- cerebral commissures
diencephalon (things in it)
thalamus
hypothalamus
optic chasm
pituitary gland
mesencephalon (what is in it)
tectum and tegmentum
Metencephalon(what is in it)
recticular formation
pons
cerebrellum
myelencephalon(what is in it)
reticular formation
