Behavioral Neuro Test 1 Flashcards
1
Q
blood brain barrier
A
a type of physical protection that also leads to chemical protection. It is tightly packed cells of blood vessels and it ends up also protecting entry of many molecules
2
Q
what are the 3 physical protections of the brain?
A
skull, meninges(dura, arachoind, and subarachnoid), and cereboralspinal fluid
3
Q
what is circle of willis
A
an arrangesment of arteries that supply blood to the brain. the circle of willis is in the center (sort of like a roundabout)
4
Q
what does circle of willis do?
A
it creates collaterals in cerebral circulation. if a part of the circle is blocked, blood from other vessels are still able to reach the route. its like a backup route.
5
Q
what are neurons
A
special cells for reception, conduction and transmission of electrochemical signals. can come in many shapes and sizes
6
Q
channel protein of the cell membrane
A
ionotripic receptor
7
Q
signal protein of cell membrane
A
metabotropic receptor
8
Q
how are neurons classified?
A
by the number of processes coming off of them
9
Q
glial cells do what
A
support neurons and they communicate with each other and other neurons
this is a new find! very cool!
10
Q
5 classes of glial cells
A
- oligondendrocyte
- schwann cells
- microglia
- astrocytes
- ependymal cells
11
Q
oligondendrocytes
A
they are rich in myelin and create the myelin sheaths in the CNS
12
Q
schwann cells
A
they are rich in myelin and create myelin in PNS. So same as oligondendrocytes, but in the PNS
13
Q
microglia
A
they are involved in the response to injury or diseases
14
Q
astrocytes
A
these are the largest glia. they are star shaped and help with support, contact in neurons, blood vessels, etc)
15
Q
ependymal cells
A
they line the walls of the ventricles and produce cereboralspinal fluid
16
Q
gray matter in spinal cord
A
found on the inner areas. they are mainly cell bodies
17
Q
white matter in spinal cord
A
they are on the outer area, they are mainly made of myelinated axons
18
Q
dorsal side of spinal cord
A
the dorsal side in afferent and sensory
19
Q
ventral side of spinal cord
A
this side is efferent and motor
20
Q
what are the major DIVISIONS of the brain
A
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
21
Q
forebrain is made up of what
A
- telencephalon
- diencephalon
22
Q
midbrain is made up of what
A
mesencephalon (another name for midbrain)
23
Q
hindbrain is made up of what
A
- metencephalon
- myelencephalon
24
Q
myelencephalon (what is located in it + function
A
This is the medulla, specifically.
* it has tracts that carry signals
* the orgin of the recitcular formation is based here
* it regulates many things such as cardiac, circulatory, repiratory and other functions that keep you alive
* the rahe nuclei is located here
25
raphe nuclei
located in myelencepahalon. this is where serotonin producing neurons begin
26
recticular formation path
starts in medulla (myelencephalon) and continues up to metencephalon and mesenecephalon)
27
metencephalon
this is the pons and cerebellum
* has MANYY tracts
28
pons
the "switchboard" of the brain. connects cerebral cortex to cerebellum. it regulates REM sleep, posture, etc.
29
cerebellum
this regulates coordination, sensormotor control, memory for motor response (i.e. eyeblinking and other simple motor memories)
30
mesencephalon
the midbrain
* made up of tectum and tegmentum
31
tectum(where and what is in it)
the dorsal area of midbrain.
superior and inferior colliculi are here.
32
superior colliculi function
eye: visual-motor processing, controlling eye movement, gaze, etc)
33
inferior colliculi
located in dorsal area of tectum. auditory and locating sound spatially
34
tegmentum (plus main things located there)
the mid and ventral areas of the midbrain
* recticular formation
* tracts of passage
* preiaquedicutal gray
* substantia niagra
* Ventral temental area (VTA)
* and red nucelus
35
periaqueductal gray
located in tegmentum. tells us a LOT about behaviour in an animal.
* pain modulation (opioid receptors are here)
* defensive behaviors (also freezing)
* female sexual behavior (lordosis is a way to show sexual receptiveness)
36
substantia nigra (location and functions)
located in tegmentum
* sensorimotor movements
* dopomingeric neurons
* associative learning
* reward
37
ventral tegmental area (location and function)
located in tegmentum
* associative learning
* reward
38
red nucleus
located in tegmentum
* motor control
* limb movement
39
dicencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
40
thalamus- location + functions + what is in it
Located in diencephalon.
this has lots of different nuclei and cortical projections and functions including...
* sensory relay nuclei
* and other cognitive functions
41
list all the sensory relay nuclei
1. lateral geniculate nuclei
2. medial geniculate nuclei
3. ventral posterior nuclei
4. parvicellular protion of centroposteromedial nuclei
42
lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN)
focused on visual
43
medial geniculate nuclei(MGN)
auditory
44
ventral posterior nuclei
somatosensory system
45
parvicellular portion of centroposeromedial nuceli (VPMpc)
gustatory (taste)
46
cognitive/integrative functions of thalamus
mediodorsal nuclei ( a type of thalamic nuclei) projects to the frontal cortex. this can help with some decision making.
47
hypothalamus. location, functions + subregions
Located in dicencephalon
FUNCTIONS
* regulation of motivated behaviors (ie sleeping, eating, sex, etc)
* temp regulation and circadian cycles
* regulates reclose of hormones from pituitary glands
* sexually dimorphic nuclei (medial preoptic area) and is bigger in males than female brains
* anatomically mammilary bodies are also here
SUBREGIONS
lateral
* ventromedial
* medial preoptic area
* paraventicular
* suprachiasmatic nucleus
48
mammilary bodies
certain types of memories
49
lateral hypothalamus
orexin- feeding and sleeping/arousal
50
ventromedial hypothalamus
feeding, female sexual behaviour, fear, defensive emtional
51
medial preoptic area of hypothamalus
male sexual behaviors
52
paraventricular area of hypothalamus
stress and pitutary hormone
53
suprachiasmatic neuclus of hypothalamus
circadian rythms
54
convolutions in the brain
serve to increase surface area
55
gyrocephalic brain
has many convolutions
56
lissencephalic brain
has no convolutions
57
longitudinal fissure
groove that separates the hemispheres
58
corpus callosum
the largest cerebral commissure
59
list all the commissures of the brain
1. corpus callosum (largest)
2. anterior commissure
3. posterior commissure
4. hippocampal commissure (the commissure of the fornix,, its reward based)
5. habenular commissure (proccessing of adverse events. bad things or lack of rewards)
60
what are all the cerebral lobes
1. frontal
2. parietal
3. temporal
4. occipital
61
frontal lobe
* posterior area- motor and broccas area (speech + language productions)
* anterior area- cogntiive/executive functions
62
parietal lobe
1. somatosensory
2. proprioception(being aware where you are in space)
3. attention
63
temporal lobe (3 parts)
1. medial
2. inferior
3. superior
64
medial temporal
certain memories
65
inferior temporal
identification of complex visual patterns
66
superior temporal
hearing + language + spoken speech comprehension (wernickes area)
67
occipital lobe
vision
68
neocortex
6 layers of cells. This is about 90% of the human cerebral cortex
69
allocortex
3 layers of cells- evolutionarily the orlder areas. hippocampus is allocortex
70
neocortical organization
functional columns. neurons within a given column share functional properties. ie respond to visual stimular with similar oritneted edges. cells of the columns have specific preferences.
somatosensory system resoonds to specific types of touch
71
subcortical stuctures
1. limbic system
2. basal ganglia system
72
limbic system(location, function, what is within it)
telencephalon
regulation of motivated behavior. mammillary bodies
hippocampus
amygdala
forix
cingulate cortex
septum
73
basal ganglia system (location, function, + what is within it)
Location: telencephelon
Function : performance of voluntary motor responces and certain kinds of decision making.
* dorsal stiatum (caudate + Putamen)
* globus palllidus
74
dorsal stiatum is made up of what
caudate nuclues and putamen
75
anatomy of diffuse modulatory systems
each system has a small set of neurons at the core. neurons of these arise from the central core (mainly brain stem) and each one can inluence many (i.e. axon may contact more than 100,000 postynaptic neurons)
76
noreprinephrine
NE
* orgin: locus coerulus (in pons)
* sends to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, cerebellum, midbrain + spinal cord
* purpose- attention, arrounsal, sleep-wake, mood, pain, anxiety + some memory and learning
77
dopamine
DA
* orgin 1: substantia nigagra (midbrain) aka nigrostaital system
* sends to: dorsal stiatum
* purpose: initiation of voluntary movements (parkinsons disease happens with shrotage of DA)
* orgin 2: ventral tegmental area (midbrain) aka mesocorticolimbic system
* sends to: frontal cortex, ventral stiatum (nucleus accumbens) and other limbic systems
* purpose: associative earning, reward, motivation, addiction, cognitice control, motivation, emotion
78
serotonin
5-HT
all in raphe nuclei (pons, medulla, midbrain)
* orgin 1: medulla
* projects to: spinal cord
* pain related sensory signals
* orgin 2: pons and midbrain
* projects to: cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, bsala ganglia, cerebellum
* purpose: arousal, wakefulness, sleep wake, sleep states, mood, emotional behaviour
79
Acetylcholine
ACH
* orgin : places in basal forebrain
* suborgin 1: medial septal nuclus
* to: cholinergic innervation of hoopocamus
* suborgin 2: nuclus basalis of substantia innominata
* to: cholinergic innervation of cortex
overall purpose: arousal, sleep wake, attention, learning, memory
//
* Orgin 2: pontomesencephalotegmental area (pons + minbrain tegmentum)
* suborgin 1: PPT pedunclopontine tegmental nucleus)
* to: cholinergic innervation of thalums, basal ganglia, and some of forebrain area
* suborgin 2: LDT (lateral dorsal tegmental nucleus)
* to: cholinergic innervation of thalamus, prefontal cortex and habenula
Overall purpose: regulation of sensory relay nuclei (kinda like a guard...is this information important enough to pass on? i.e. you dont always see your nose but its htere in your vision)
80
anterograde tracing
forward. tracing where axons are projecting away from an area. tracers: phaseolous vulgaris leucoaggluntinin (PHA-L)
81
retrograde tracers
bacward. froming from hwere axons are protecting into an area. tracers:
1. cholera toxin subunit B (CTb)
2. fluro-gold (FG)
82
Resting membrane potential
different in electrical charge between inside and out of the cell.
* inside = (-)
* Outside = (+)
resting membrain potential is about -70mV
83
is membrane polarized or not?
yes it is polarized. it carries a charge
84
factors that contribute to even ion distribution
random motion and electrostatic pressure
85
random motion
particles tend to move down their concentration gradient
86
electrostatic pressure
like repels like,,, opposites attract
87
factors that lead to uneven distribtion of ions
selesctive probability to certain ions
sodium pottasium pumps
88
sodium (in or out)
outside
89
chroride (in or out)
outside
90
Potassium (in or out)
inside
91
NA+ ions
they are more outside, but they are under the pressure to be inside. They don't though, because sodium ion channels are closed in resting neurons (voltage gated)
| electrostatic pressure and random motion keeo them out
92
K+ ions
they are inside but they leak through leak channels because the K+ ion channels are iopen in resting neurons. This said, they come back inside and do not exit all because of electrostaitc pressure
93
how does a resting membraine potential stay constant?
sodium potential pump
94
sodium potential pump
transport 3 Na+ ions out per every 2 K+ ions in.
95
where do neurotransmitters bind
at postsynaptic receptors. neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers. they then bind and cause electrical changes (depolarize or hyperpolarize)
96
depolarization
more positive
97
hyper polarization
more negative
98
when NA+ is let in, what happens to polarization
depolarize
99
when K+ is let out, what happens to polarization
hyperpolarize
100
two posynaptic potentials
exibatory and inhibatory
101
exibatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
depolarize
increase likelihood neuron will fire
102
inhibatory postsynaptic potential
hyperpolarize
decrease likelihood neuron will fire
103
borh EPSP and IPSP
* travel passively from their site of generation (the synapse and travels alone dendrites and or cell body)
* decreental- they get smaller as they travel
* graded: weak stimuli elicit small PsPs; strong stimuli elicit large PSps
104
integration of IPSP and EPSP must result in a potential of what to general an action potential
-65mV
105
spatial summation
integration of events happening at different places
106
temporal summation
integration of events happening at different times
107
Action potential
when membrane potential goes from about -70mV to +50mV
108
Action potentials do not have graded responses. what does this mean
the maginitude is NOT related to the intensity (unlike PSPs) but the rate of neural firing IS.
109
refractory period
prevent backwards movement of APs and limit the rate of firing (think of the blue part in the video). Two types: absolute and relative
110
absolute refractory period
impossible to initiate another action potential
111
relative refractory period
difficult, but possible, to initiate another action potential
112
Action conduction of unmyelinated APs
* nondecremental (doesnt get weaker as it travels)
* Slower: slowler because the signal must be regenerated at every point along the axon membrane, rather than jumping between nodes of Ranvier (as in saltatory conduction).
* The action potential at one location depolarizes the adjacent segment of the axonal membrane, reaching the threshold for the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.
Sodium ions (Na⁺) flow into the cell through these channels, further depolarizing the membrane and generating a new action potential at that location.
* Although each segment of the membrane generates a new action potential, the process is so rapid and seamless that the action potential appears to move as a continuous wave down the axon.
* This cycle is repeated along the entire length of the axon until the action potential reaches the axon terminal, where it triggers neurotransmitter release.
113
PSP vs AP
IPSP/EPSP
* decremental
* fast
* passive
APs
* nondecremental
* slower
* active (unmyelinated) and passive (myelinated)
114
AP conduction myelinated
* passive- occurs along each myelin segment to next node of ranvier
* new action potential generated at each node
* instant conduction results in faster conduction
* called "saltatory conduction"- kinda like it jumps
115
Hodgkin-Huxley Model
The model used to describe action potentials and how they work. It was based on squid motor neurons(bigger and easier to see changed). Cereberal neurons behave in ways that are not always predicted by the model, because this is based on a hypothesis.
116
biopsychology as definied by Pinel
scientific study of the BIOLOGY of behavior
117
psychology
scientific study of behavior
118
neuroanatomy
study of structure of nervous system
119
neurochemistry
study of chemical bases of neural activity
120
neuroendocrinology
study of interactions between nervous system and endocrine system
121
neuropathology
study of nervous system dysfunction
122
neuropharmacology
study of effects of drugs on neural system
123
neurophysiology
study of functions and activities of nervous system
124
physciological psychology
neuro mechanisms of behaviors. controlled experiments with direct manipulation and recording of brain
125
neuropathology
psychological effects of brain damage or brain dysfunction
126
psychophysiology
relation between psysiological activity and psychological processes in humans
127
cognitive neuroscience
neural bases of cognition (i.e. thought, memory, attention, etc). through functional brain imaging
128
comparative psychology
comparing different species to understand evolution, genetics and adaptiveness. lab or ethological research
129
signal protein
send signals about surroundings or environment. associated with metabolic receptors
130
channel protein
transport water and molecules. associated with ionotropic receptors
131
small neurotransmitters
various kinds. Small neurotransmitters are a category of chemical messengers used by neurons to communicate. They are synthesized in the terminal buttons (axon terminals) and stored in synaptic vesicles until they are released into the synaptic cleft during neurotransmission.
132
large neurotransmitters
these are neuropeptides. they are assembeled in the cell body, they are packaged in vesicles, and then transported to axon terminal
133
neurotransmitter def
endogenous (produced naturally in your body) chemical substance that elicits or modifies a synaptic response. when neurons fire, they release neurotransmitters from terminal buttons. they then diffuse across synaptic clefts and interact with specialized receptor molecules. they will either depolarize or hyperolarize the postsynaptic neuron.
134
criteria for neurotransmitters(5)
1. there must be a chemical produced within neuron
2. the chemical must also be FOUND withIN the neuron
3. after a chemical is released and does it's job, it must be inactivated. this can happen through reuptake mechanism or my enzyme that stops action of chemical. (also autoreceptors can tell signals to slow down)
4. when a chemical is released, it must act on postsynaptic receptor and cause biological effect
5. if a chemical is applied on postsynaptic membrane, it should have the same effect as when it is released by a neuron
135
Otto leowls experiment
Otto Loewi's groundbreaking experiment in 1921 demonstrated the chemical nature of neural communication and led to the discovery of acetylcholine (ACh) as the first identified neurotransmitter.
Setup:
Loewi used two frog hearts:
Heart 1: Intact with its vagus nerve attached.
Heart 2: Without the vagus nerve.
Both hearts were placed in separate chambers filled with a saline solution, and the solutions were allowed to flow between the chambers.
Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve:
Loewi electrically stimulated the vagus nerve of Heart 1, which is known to slow the heart rate.
Observation:
As expected, the stimulation caused Heart 1 to slow its beating.
A short time later, Heart 2 (which had no vagus nerve) also began to beat more slowly.
Conclusion:
The slowing of Heart 2 was caused by a chemical substance released by Heart 1 into the saline solution. This chemical diffused to the second heart through the shared solution.
Loewi identified this chemical as acetylcholine (ACh).
ACh was released from the vagus nerve terminals in Heart 1, causing the slowing of its heartbeat. When it traveled to Heart 2, it exerted the same effect.
136
receptor heterogenity allows for what
different effects
137
how many NTs does a neuron use
multiple!
138
how many receptors do NT's affect?
multiple. there are different receptor subtypes for a given one NT
139
NT life cycle
processes involved in their synthesis, release, action, and clearance, all of which determine how they function and influence neural communication. These steps ensure precise control of neurotransmission and shape the timing and strength of their effects.
they have distinct life cycles that affect time and influence
140
excytosis
the process of neurotransmitter release
141
arrical of AP to terminal process
When an action potential (AP) reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters through this process:
1. Arrival of the Action Potential:
The AP travels down the axon and reaches the presynaptic terminal. This depolarizes terminal membrane
2. Opening of Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels:
The depolarization activates voltage-gated calcium (Ca⁺) channels in the membrane of the terminal. These channels open, allowing calcium ions (Ca⁺) to flow into the terminal.
3. Vesicle Fusion with the Membrane:
Entry of calcium interacts with synaptic vesicles.
4. Neurotransmitter Release:
Once the vesicles fuse with the membrane, they release their contents (neurotransmitters) into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis.
These neurotransmitters then diffuse across the cleft to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, initiating a response.
142
how do NT activate receptors
a released NT produces a signal in the postsynaptic neuron by binding to the receptors.
143
ligand
molecule that binds to another
144
is a NT a liagand
yes, a ligand of its receptor
145
acetycholine receptor subtypes
nicotinic and muscarinic
146
nictonitc receptor
a type of ionotropic receptor for ACh. it has five subunites that form a ligand gated ion channel through the cell membrane. the subunits are numberd
147
muscarinic receptor
a type of metabotropic receptor for ACH
148
types of receptors
ionotropic and metabotropic
149
ionotropic receptors
very fast. associated with ligand-activated ion channels (aka channel protein movement?). NT binds to post synaptic receptor and associated ion channel opens or closes, causing a PSP.
150
metabotropic receptors
Metabotropic Receptors are a type of neurotransmitter receptor that indirectly mediate cellular responses through signal proteins and G-proteins. These receptors play an essential role in modulating slower but longer-lasting and diverse effects within the cell
process:
- A neurotransmitter (NT) binds to the metabotropic receptor on the cell membrane.
- The binding of the neurotransmitter activates an associated G-protein. This causes one of its subunits to break away from the receptor complex.
Action of G-protein Subunit:
- The G-protein subunit can do one of two things:
1. Bind to an Ion Channel: This directly causes the ion channel to open or close, altering the flow of ions across the membrane.
2. Trigger Second Messenger: The G-protein subunit activates intracellular signaling pathways by stimulating the production of a second messenger.
NT messenger 2- wide variety of effects (i.e. can move to the nucleus and influence gene expression)
151
dendrodendritic synapse
dendrite send signal to other dendrite
152
exodendritic synapse
ason synapse on dendritic spine of another
153
if NA+ channels open, what kind of PSP happens
EPSP
154
if K+ ions are opened what kind of PSP occurs
IPSP
155
axoextrocellular
terminal w no specific target (secrete transmitter into extracelluluar fluid)
156
axosomatic
axon terminal end on cell body
157
axosynaptic
axon terminal end on another terminal
158
axoaxonic
axon terminal end on another axon
159
axosecretary
axon terminal end on tiny blood vessel (neurotransmitter goes directly into blood)
160
presynaptic facilitation
axoaxonic that increase signal (aka yelling it)
161
presynaptic inhibitation
axoaxonic that decrease signal (aka whisper it)
162
small NT vs neuropeptides
Small neurotransmitter
* released directy into synapse
* activate either ionotropic or metabotripic receptors that act directly on ion channels
* transmission of rapid and brief signals
Neuropeptides
* released diffusely
* most bind to metabotropic receptors that act through 2nd messengers
* transmission of slow and longer lasting signals
163
the nervous system is divided into two sections
CNS and PNS
164
what is in CNS
brain and spinal cord
165
PNS
split into somatic and automic nervous sustem
166
somatic nervous system
interaction with external environment. Afferent and efferent
167
autonomics nervous system
afferent. sensory. split into sympathetic and parasympathetic
168
sympathetic
fight or flight. thoracic and lumbar. second stage neurons are far from target organ
169
parasympathetic
resting. cranial and sacral. second stage neurons are near the target organ
170
how many pairs of cranial nerves
12. they project from the brain(NOT spinal cord) and include autonomic motor fibers of cranial nerves.
171
arachnoid membrane
spider like web around brain
172
make a schematic diagram about neural circuits
do it
173
chroroid plexuses
network of capillaries. produce cerebrospinal fluid
174
The Coolidge effect
males (and, to a lesser extent, females) of many species exhibit renewed sexual interest and arousal when introduced to new receptive partners, even after having mated to satiety with previous partners. This effect is thought to be driven by evolutionary pressures to maximize reproductive success.
175
Pure vs. applied research
Pure- motivated by curiosity of researcher. only done to gain knowledge.
Applied research- intended to bring about direct benefit to humankind
176
Experiments vs. non-experiments
experiement- used to study causation. Research methods in which the researcher actively manipulates one or more independent variables (IVs) to observe their effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables to establish causality.
non-experiment- Methods in which variables are observed and measured without direct manipulation. These studies focus on describing relationships, exploring phenomena, or making predictions but cannot establish causal relationships.
177
Principle of converging operations
strengths of one approach can compensate for weaknesses or others
178
Korsakoff’s syndrome – what is it (what are the symptoms), what causes
it, what parts of the brain are damaged, how is it treated? Discuss how
converging operations led to our modern understanding of the disease.
severe memory loss. commony occurs in heavy drinkers. caused by brain damage from thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. At first they thought it was caused completely by alcohol but converging operations showed it was thiamine.
179
Comparative neurobiology (for example, size of different brain regions
across different species)
the study of similarities and differences in the structure and function of nervous systems across species.
180
Important features of the neuronal cell membrane
channel proteins
and signal proteins embedded within the membrane
181
Types of stains-Golgi vs. Nissl
Golgi stain expose block of neural tissue to potassium dichromate and solver nitrate. stains the neurons black and you can see the overall shape of neurons
Nissl stain- cresyl violet penetrate all cells on a slide but bind to molecules that are most prevenland in neuron cell bodies. used to estimate number of cells in an area.
182
How to measure the membrane potential
place tip of electro inside neuron and tip of another outside in extracellular fluid. the intracellular ones = microelectrodes. when both are in extracellular, difference is 0. but if tip of microelectrode is in neuron at rest, it is -70.
183
Explain the ionic basis of the action potential- Be able to draw and label an
action potential
RISING PHASE
when there is a sufficiently large EPSP, sodium channels in axon membrane open and Na+ enters quickly and the membrane potential goes from -70 to +50. then the change triggers the opening of potassium channels. Then K+ are released out and when the AP is near its peak the sodium channels close.
REPOLARIZATION
next, the continued K+ exiting causes repolarization. once repolarization is achieved. the potassium channels close gradually.
HYPERPOLARIZATION
since the K+ channels close slowly, too many K+ exit and the neuron is hyperpolarized for a small amount of time.
184
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- definition
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs are graded changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron in response to neurotransmitter binding at synapses. They occur at dendrites or the soma. They are also graded.
ISPS or ESPS.
Action Potential (AP):
APs are rapid, all-or-none electrical impulses that propagate along the axon of a neuron, triggered when the membrane potential reaches a specific threshold. They are all or none.
185
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- duration
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
Long lasting.
Action Potential (AP):
brief.
186
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- ion channels
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
ligand gated. PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.
Action Potential (AP):
voltage gated. APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.
187
Explain the differences between postsynaptic potentials and action
potentials- function
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP):
PSPs integrate incoming signals and determine whether the neuron will reach the threshold to fire an AP.
Action Potential (AP):
APs transmit signals to the next cell, such as another neuron, muscle, or gland.
188
Antidromic vs. orthodromic stimulation
if sufficient intensity of electrostimulation is applied on midpoint of axon, 2 APs are created.
1. antidromic- one AP travels along axon back to cell body
2. othodromic- other AP travels along axon toward terminal buttons.
189
where are action potentials generated
axon initial segment
190
Cerebral cortex (what is located in it)
neocortex, hippocampus
191
telencephalon (things in it)
- cerebral cortex
- major fissures
- major gryi
- four lobes
- limbic system
- basal ganglia
- cerebral commissures
192
diencephalon (things in it)
thalamus
hypothalamus
optic chasm
pituitary gland
193
mesencephalon (what is in it)
tectum and tegmentum
194
Metencephalon(what is in it)
recticular formation
pons
cerebrellum
195
myelencephalon(what is in it)
reticular formation
