Behavior & Welfare Flashcards
What are some benefits from having a medical behaviors training program?
What husbandry and medical behaviors should animals be trained for?
What safety considerations should be met?
Fowler 6 Ch 7 – Behavioral Training for Medical Procedures
Introduction – General info on Globalization and the interactions with humans, animals and wildlife
- Behavioral training for medical proc provides the following benefits:
- preventative medicine, diagnostics, long-term treatment, measurement of baseline physiologic parameters, repro evaluations, animal introductions, etc may be performed with less stress and fewer injuries
- Animals may be desensitized to veterinarian
- Positive psychological and behavioral enrichment benefits
Financial benefits of a training program
- Costs – time commitment of staff; risk to staff, medical equipment
- Minimize costs by:
- Designate program coordinator
- Select specific behavioral projects
- Train or have well-trained staff
- Provide ongoing assistance/support for program
- Ongoing assessment/evaluation of program results
Husbandry related behaviors
- Animals should be trained to:
- Shift bet holding areas
- Be isolated
- Sit or stand on a scale
- Animals may be trained to:
- Accept medical procedures (venipuncture, wound treatment, long-term medical therapies, palpation, U/S, radiographs, etc)
- Cooperate with reproductive related procedures (semen collection, AI, collection of milk, bottle feeding of babies being cared for by a surrogate)
- Lay down for hoof trims/foot workType A strain.
- Safety
- Trainers should have access to a radio
- Confining an animal in a smaller space (alone) like a squeeze or crate lessens risk when procedures such as palpation or other exposure of humans/equipment must occur
- In procedures where people will be touching the animal, two people should always be present
Describe a five-point approach to performing animal welfare assessments in zoos.
Animal Welfare Assessments in Zoos: Establishing Practical Guidelines for Assessments
- Use a team approach w/ different perspectives of the animal’s situation. All team members should be familiar w/ normal behavior for the species and be able to recognize abnormal behavior. i.e. animal caregivers, veterinarians, animal curators, research investigators
- Good communication and records of observations. Keep consistency between observers (i.e. use the same people to make welfare assessments).
- Identify which indicators to monitor (i.e. behavioral, psychological). Define and monitor the right types and number of indicators.
Common error: too many parameters (prolongs process, makes less effective); too few parameters (leads to inaccuracies)
Setting the baseline is difficult because it involves agreeing on what is the hypothetical ideal
- Use an appropriate record keeping system for welfare information collection that for the institution being evaluated. i.e. WelfareTak (zoos), other systems in food/laboratory settings.
- Determine the frequency and timing of welfare assessments based on the degree of deviation from good welfare (poor welfare = more frequent assessments).
Compare and contrast resource-based versus animal based welfare assessments.
What factors are evaluated based on resources?
What factors can be evaluated to assess an animal’s mental state?
What about their physical state?
Or their behavioral state?
Resource-based (AKA “design-based” or “inputs”) reviews are the most commonly applied evaluation of animal welfare assessment → focus on animal care and things that are provided to the animal, with the natural history taken into account (amount of space, substrate, temperature, diet, veterinary care)
- Some welfare resources are measured as present or not present: i.e. providing the correct thermal zone (positive) vs. being outside of the thermal zone (negative)
- Some parameters are evaluated on a continuum: i.e. sufficient food is provided so animals are not hungry, but the diet may not provide correct nutritional balance so the animals are malnourished or over-nutritioned; consideration of presentation of food, variability of food types, feeding schedule, or giving animals choice/control of food items.
- Use in conjunction w/ management practice information to identify causes of animal welfare problems or indicate potential risk factors (i.e. exhibit design, environmental enrichment, suitable social interactions)
- The public often scrutinizes the housing and management conditions
- Resources are necessary to provide animals with the potential to experience good welfare, but the presence of resources do not ensure good welfare
Animal-based (AKA “outcome-based” or “outputs”) measures include the physical, behavioral, and mental state of the animals themselves
- Evaluating the mental state is challenging (need to measure from the animal’s perspective)
- Rely on indirect indicators of animal’s thoughts/feelings: facial expressions, paw licks, tongue protrusions, vocalizations (i.e. cats purring, rats chirping) → difficult to extrapolate across species
- Enrichment compromises for compromised conditions in captivity
- Veterinarians are best at evaluating an animal’s physical state (food/water consumption, feces/urine/urate production, activity level, objective physical examination measurements, diagnostic test results, imaging, etc.)
- Many studies evaluate subclinical physiologic changes to determine stress: i.e. birds in new environments becoming immunocompromised and susceptible to fungal infection, glucocorticoid measurement (blood/feces/saliva).
- Assessing the behavioral state evaluates if the animal engages in typical activities for its species, and not expressing maladaptive behaviors resulting in injury/illness. Often compare behavior of captive animals to their wild counterparts.
- Positive welfare = animal performs species-specific behaviors with diversity and frequency seen in the wild
- Animal caregivers are often most familiar w/ animal’s behaviors and may note when abnormal behaviors are present (i.e. excessive activity, lack of activity, abnormal vocalizations, excessive grooming/self-mutilation, development of stereotypy)
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Stereotypies (abnormal repetitive behaviors w/o an obvious function): theorized to be an animal’s response to abnormal stimuli or lack of stimuli in the captive environment
- High level of abnormal behavior can be associated w/ enhanced coping abilities
- Literature survey: in 68% of situations that caused/increased stereotypies were also linked to decreased welfare, BUT stereotypies were also linked to good/neutral welfare just as often as poor welfare → do not use stereotypies as sole index of welfare
There are several different guidelines to measuring animal welfare.
What are the five freedoms?
What are the five domains?
What is Maslow’s heirarchy of needs pyramid?
What are the five opportunities to thrive?
Who should be included in a zoo’s animal welfare committee?
How does an animal welfare director fit into this system?
What is the role of the veterinarian?
Animal Welfare Committees in Zoos
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AZA: animal welfare is the animal’s collective physical, mental, and emotional state over a period of time, which is measured from a continuum from good to poor
- AZA-accredited institutions must “develop and implement a clear and transparent process for identifying, communicating, and addressing animal welfare concerns” in a timely manner w/o retribution to the staff member/volunteer who raises them
- Another committee/process should be developed to address any animal welfare concerns w/in the institution
- No definitive formula for how to initiate and develop an animal welfare committee, but should include: clear communication of the process to staff/volunteers, easy access to the committee by all staff/volunteers, staff w/ experience and authority necessary to evaluate submitted observations and implement necessary changes, and timely feedback to the person submitting the observation.
- Best to have a small group of members selected for leadership skills: internal members (executive staff, curators, keepers, veterinarians, researchers, facilities managers, other department representatives) and external members (board members, research associates, conservation partners, local experts from related fields)
- Important to respond to welfare concerns through a formal complaint-driven system that encourages responsible reporting
- Resources/examples for zoos developing own welfare committees (Table 12.3):
- WAZA developed an Animal Welfare Strategy w/ guidelines on how to establish/maintain acceptable animal welfare standards and related best practices → 58 recommendations in 9 strategic areas (animal welfare and its assessment; monitoring and management of animal welfare; environmental enrichment; exhibit design, breeding programs, and collection planning; conservation welfare; animal welfare research; partnerships in animal welfare; engagement and interaction w/ visitors)
Animal Welfare Departments
- Some zoos employ animal welfare directors to oversee animal welfare department/institute to oversee animal welfare management.
- Role of this position is variable: animal training, behavioral husbandry, enrichment, research review, technical support
- Perform routine welfare assessments for animals in conjunction w/ curatorial and veterinary staff, review special events hosted by the zoo and the impact on animal welfare, and organize/conduct prospective studies
- Behavioral research can measure welfare outputs, and results aid in developing a database for making evidence-based decisions about animal care
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Veterinarian’s Role in Animal Welfare: very important for veterinarians contribute to welfare assessments for life-long medical needs, hospice, and end-of-life decisions.
- American College of Animal Welfare (ACAW)
- Australian College of Veterinary Scientists Animal Welfare Chapter
- Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons offers credentials (diplomas/certificates)
- European College on Animal Welfare and Behavioral Medicine has subspecialty in Animal Welfare Science, Ethics, and Law
Describe the physiology of the stress response, including the entire HPA axis.
What is the steroid hormone of mammals? What is it of other vertebrates & rodents?
What are the physiologic effects of this hormone?
What makes measuring glucocorticoid reponses as a welfare indicator challenging?
Overview of the Stress Response
- Stress causes the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to mediate behavioral/physiologic changes
- Neurons in the hypothalamus release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) → CRH acts on receptors in the anterior pituitary to stimulate release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)into the bloodstream.
- ACTH causes release of GCs (cortisol in most mammals/fish; corticosterone in amphibians/reptiles/birds/rodents) from adrenal cortex.
- Elevated production of GCs increases energy availability and oxygen intake, enhances sensory function and memory, and decreases pain perception.
- Blood flow is reduced to organs not needed for movement
- Processes not immediately related to survival (digestion, growth, immune function, reproduction) are inhibited.
- → Changes are adaptive in the short term but can have negative effects when prolonged (on neurologic, cardiovascular, immune, and reproductive systems).
- Long-term increases in GC production can be evidence of compromised welfare
- However, adrenal responses occur during beneficial behaviors requiring physical activity (mating/copulation, play, responses to environmental enrichment) → challenging to differentiate between adaptive responses and those signaling genuine stress.
- Individuals of the same species may differ in GC responses due to different temperament and previous experiencing
- → recommend measuring a range of behavioral, health, and physiological responses to ensure endocrine data is interpreted correctly
What samples are commonly used to measure glucocorticoids?
What makes blood or saliva samples less than ideal?
Why are fecal or urinary GC samples better?
What type of lag time from a stressful event would occur before an increase in glucocorticoids in the urine or feces?
What about hair or feathers for monitoring?
What are some pros and cons of using feathers or hair for GC monitoring?
Types of Samples Used for GC Assessment
- Variety of sample times (blood, saliva, urine, feces, hair, feathers) based on information required, feasibility of collection (especially w/ repeated sampling over extended periods)
- Blood & saliva samples are point samples representing only a short duration of time → conclusions based on blood/saliva may be inaccurate since GCs are affected by circadian rhythms and exhibit daily fluctuations
- Blood samples difficult to obtain w/o inducing GC production
- Saliva samples are less invasive but require substantial training for regular collection
- Monitor adrenal activity through fecal/urinary GCs b/c animal’s behavior and adrenal activity are not affected by the noninvasive collection process
- Easy repeated sampling allows for long-term monitoring of hormone changes
- Samples can be collected from socially housed individuals without separating them
- Feces/urine samples not as strongly impacted by pulsatile secretion and circadian rhythms → represent an integrated measure of perceived stressors and resulting adrenal activity
- Important to know the lag time between stressful experience and appearance of a signal in order to properly interpret data
- Fecal lag time depends on intestinal transit time from the duodenum to the rectum (considerable species variation; typically 6-48 hours)
- Urine lag time is shorter (2-14 hours)
- Hair/feathers are unaffected by circadian rhythms → easy collection and long-term stability
- Free GCs diffuse into hair through the root (supplied by capillaries) and through the highly vascularized base from which feathers originate
- Hair grows slowly → typically collected to assess stressors over the course of weeks to months
- Feathers have bands that correspond to daily growth cycles → use to provide record of GC production over several days or weeks
- Limitations:
- Contribution of glandular secretions (sweat, sebum, or other scents) to the GC content of hair/feathers is unknown
- Important to understand the growth rate for proper data interpretation
- Blood & saliva samples are point samples representing only a short duration of time → conclusions based on blood/saliva may be inaccurate since GCs are affected by circadian rhythms and exhibit daily fluctuations
How are glucocorticoid assays validated?
What is the difference between physiologic and biological validation?
What physiologic variables may affect glucocorticoid levels?
Validation Procedures
- Components of proper validation:
- Determine whether sample storage and extraction procedures are appropriate
- (Feces/urine) Can the immunoassay antibodies detect the metabolites in the samples?
- Does the assay system detect biologically meaningful changes in GC production?
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Physiologic validation (AKA challenge test) involves pharmacologically inducing an increase in plasma GC by injecting ACTH
- Analyze samples collected before and after injection to confirm increased [GC] following ACTH administration
- ACTH challenge test may not be possible w/ endangered or difficult species → use biological validation (serial sampling before and after a known stressful event) instead
- Consider the number and ages of individuals tested; also include both sexes as baseline and peak [GC] may vary → females tend to have higher [GC] (different affinity of steroid-binding globulins?)
- Consider time of year and reproductive status → [GC] can be higher in some species during breeding season, female values affected during estrous cycle phase/pregnancy/lactation.
- Use each animal as its own control to minimize the aforementioned effects during a validation, as well as during studies assessing individual welfare
Describe your approach to addressing a behavioral concern.
When collecting behavioral data, what factors need to be analyzed?
What should be included in a comprehensive behavioral history?
What are some indicators of anxiety in an animal?
Chapter 14 – A Systemic Approach in Diagnosing Behavior Problems
- Behavior - “the internally coordinated responses of whole living organisms to internal and/or external stimuli, excluding responses more easily understood as developmental changes”
- What it does and how it acts in response to the environment, not what it is
- Unexpected behaviors are clinical signs, not necessarily a specific problem
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Applied Behavior Analysis
- Observe and describe both problematic and normal behavior
- Video recordings may be helpful
- Describe using body language, not labels
- Include frequency, duration, magnitude, and severity of behavior
- Analysis of contributing factors
- Antecedents: what happens before behavior
- Context, potential triggers, environmental stimuli
- Influence likelihood that specific behavior will occur
- Consequences: what happens after behavior
- Provide environmental feedback to the animal
- Influence likelihood that behavior will be repeated.
- Observe and describe both problematic and normal behavior
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Comprehensive Behavioral History
- Basic signalment information - gender, reproductive status
- Full history
- Contraception, prior clinical signs, wild vs captive birth, rearing methods, environment
- Social environment
- Victim vs aggressor, abnormal social structures, retention of offspring
- Interactions with other species including humans
- Reproductive failure
- Physical environment, daily routines, enrichment
- Elimination, sleep, play, exploratory behaviors
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Physical Exam
- Some behaviors may seem unrelated to disease
- Growling, biting, lunging, scratching, licking, picking, pacing, vocalizing
- Psychiatry
- Extrapolated from human and domestic animal medicine
- Anxiety: anticipation of future threat or danger (real or imaginary)
- Startling at routine noises, inability to habituate to new things, prolonged piloerection, incapacity to sleep, prolonged recovery, redirected aggression
- Some behaviors may seem unrelated to disease
- Final diagnosis not always achievable, but systematic approach will help address many possible causes for behavioral problems.
Describe your approach to quality of life assessment and end of life planning in geriatric animals.
What are some of the most common lesions found on necropsies of geriatric animals?
At what point in an animals life should these conversations be started?
What are some common findings on examination of these animals?
How can treatments be modified to fit severity of pathology?
What about phsycological or social effects?
Fowler 9 Chapter 15: Quality-of-Life Assessment and End-of-Life Planning for Geriatric Zoo Animals (L. Vogelnest & J. Talbot) – Review by JME
“Quality of life, not length of life”
Overview:
- Very difficult to determine the appropriate point to perform euthanasia - consider interests of zoo managers and staff, visitors, animal welfare organizations, sponsors and +/- needs of breeding programs
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Study: 70 geriatric zoo mammals in five European zoos. Looked at symptoms and necropsy reports – essentially found that necropsies performed on euthanized aged zoo animals often show advanced pathology (most often MSK and neoplasia) indicating that those diseases started long before clinical signs become apparent
- Often clinical signs are subtle or completely absent – “preservation response”
- Need to apply assessment processes to help detect clinical signs EARLY
- In zoo med – limited opportunity to provide hospice care
- Communicate EARLY on and be frank about disease processes to set expectations for keepers and curators; for iconic spp – consider media involvement early on (https://www.nextavenue.org/aging-place-zoo/)
- Start a database w/ animals approaching or beyond “expected longevity” (the age at which 90% of a species’ population within regional species studbooks had died)
- Authors recommend to start assessing welfare when an animal reaches 80% of expected longevity for the species
- Don’t re-invent the wheel: There are lots of assessment forms out there (1 in this chapter); WelfareTrak
- Physical: BCS, lameness, overgrown nails, lethargy, weakness, GI signs, coughing, exercise intolerance, oral signs (red/bleeding gums, dribbling saliva, dental disease, difficulty eating), vision loss, pu/pd, poor skin coat, skin infections, fecal/urinary incontinence, slow reaction times
- Radiographic changes: DJD, ankylosed joints, spondylosis
- Clinical abnormalities: anemia, renal dz, liver dz, documented cancer
- Current treatments i.e. do they just need an NSAID or do they need nutraceutical + NSAID + neuropathic analgesics + PSGAG + Opioids
- Psychological: self-directed behavior (licking, scratching), self-destructive behavior (hair loss, digit loss), response to stimuli (do they respond to weather changes, visitors, new enclosure structures), spatial awareness (can they navigate around enclosure)
- Social: hierarchy changes (changes in access to food, shelter, grooming, contact with others/huddling), target for aggression/ostracized, change in human-animal bond, beneficial role within social structure
Describe the AZA welfare standards.
What are the standards for exhibits and social groupings?
What are the standards for ambassador animals?
- What are their enclosure requirements?
- What are the requirements while out of their enclosure?
What two taxa have specifically listed welfare requirements?
What is required of each institutions welfare committee?
Subsection 1.5 most directly related to animal welfare in traditional context
Subset chosen for discussion
Prudent to familiarize yourself with 1.6 - Enrichment and Husbandry training as well
Standard 1.5.0 - The institution must have a process for assessing animal welfare and wellness
- Added in 2018 - requires on-going proactive and reactive monitoring of animal welfare
- Guide to creating animal welfare assessment process under Standard 1.5.0 - link in chapter
1. ID staff/consultants knowledgeable in animal welfare
2. Criteria for ID of animals and timelines for assessment
3. Utilization of tool/process
4. Documentation of strategy, implementation, and action
Standard 1.5.1 - All animal must be well cared for and presented in a manner reflecting modern zoological practices in exhibit design, balancing animals’ welfare requirements with aesthetic and educational considerations
- Not just care received, but manner of exhibition matters
- “Modern zoological practice” - consider animal care program, exhibit/habitat, and 5 opportunities to thrive model
Standard 1.5.2 - All animals must be housed in the enclosures which are safe for the animals and meet their physical and psychological needs
Standard 1.5.2.1 - All animals must be kept in appropriate groupings which meet their social and welfare needs
Standard 1.5.2.2 - All animal should be provided the opportunity to choose among a variety of conditions within their environment
- Specific focus on physical environment, mental health, social interaction, and concept of choice
- Also 1.5.7 (weather, other conditions), 1.5.9 (water quality), 1.5.14 (UV light), 1.5.16 (sun, heat, shade)
Standard 1.5.4 - If ambassador animals are used, a written policy on the use of live animals in programs must be followed and incorporate the elements contained in AZA’s Recommendations for Developing an Institutional Ambassador Animal Policy.”
- An education, conservation, and welfare message must be an integral component of all programs.
- Animals in education programs must be maintained and cared for by paid and/or unpaid trained staff, and housing conditions must meet standards required for the remainder of the animals in the institution.
- While outside their primary enclosure, although the conditions may be different, animal safety and welfare need to be assured at all times.
- Unique focus on welfare for ambassador animals (role includes handling and/or training for interaction w/ public in support of education and conservation goals)
- Must consider education value, safety of animals, human safety and overall welfare
- Essential to allow ambassador animals choice
1.5.3 - focus on demonstration; 1.5.5 - focus on offsite/educational animal programs, 1.5.10 - seasonal, travelling and temporary exhibits
Standard 1.5.6 - Institutions that include elephants in their collection must follow the AZA standards for elephant management and care
Standard 1.5.6.1 - Institutions that include cetaceans in their collection must follow the AZA standards for cetacean care and welfare
- Unique - only standards related to specific taxa
Elephant standards - highly detailed and uniquely formatted with a “measurement” “standard” and “explanation”
- Cetacean standards divided into 8 sections w/ standard formatting
Standard 1.5.8 - The institution must develop and implement a clear and transparent process for identifying, communication, and addressing animal welfare concerns from paid and unpaid staff within the institution in a timely manner, without retribution
- Primary audience for this process is the staff
- Critical components require timely and protection from retribution - but anonymous not required by AZA
- If USDA registered research facility - anonymous process may be required
