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BCS 111 > BCS 111 Final Exam > Flashcards

BCS 111 Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Cognition

A

the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses

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2
Q

Parts of a neuron

A

Soma - contains the cell nucleus
Axon - conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body
Axon terminal - nerve impulse release
Dendrites - receive action potentials
Myelin sheath - help electrical impulse travel faster/more efficient
Nodes of Ranvier - facilitate rapid conduction

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3
Q

How neurons communicate

A

via electrical events called ‘action potentials’ and chemical neurotransmitters

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4
Q

Independent variable

A

the part of the experiment that is being changed on purpose to test the results of that change

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5
Q

Dependent variable

A

variable affected by the change, what is measured

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6
Q

Parts of the visual system

A

Retina - containing cells that are sensitive to light and trigger nerve impulses
Optic nerve - transmits impulses to the brain from the retina
Optic chiasma - point where the two optic nerves cross over each other
Optic tract - relays information
Visual cortex - receives and processes sensory nerve impulses

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7
Q

Parietal lobe

A

processes sensory information regarding the location of parts of the body as well as processing language

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8
Q

Occipital lobe

A

visual processing center

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9
Q

Frontal lobe

A

involved with motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, judgement, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior

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10
Q

Temporal lobe

A

primary auditory perception

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11
Q

Sensation

A

a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body

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12
Q

Perception

A

the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses

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13
Q

Rods

A
  • less intense light
  • no color vision
  • low acuity
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14
Q

Cones

A
  • intense light
  • color vision
  • high acuity
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15
Q

Bipolar cells

A

two sets of processes; can synapse with either rods or cones

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16
Q

Ganglion cells

A

neuron located near the inner surface of the retina; receives visual information from photoreceptors

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17
Q

Attention

A

selection process for an external or internal event which has to be maintained at a certain level of awareness

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18
Q

Working memory

A

the part of short-term memory that is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing

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19
Q

Short-term memory

A
  • limited capacity (roughly 7 items at a time)
  • limited duration
  • encoding
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20
Q

Long-term memory

A

intended for storage of information over a long period of time; unlimited amount of information almost indefinitely

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21
Q

Neglect syndrome

A

failure to attend to the side opposite of the brain lesion

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22
Q

Automatic processes

A

used when a task is simple or similar and tends to be rapid

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23
Q

Controlled processes

A

involves conscious, alert awareness and mental effort in which the individual actively focuses their attention on achieving a particular goal

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24
Q

Feature binding

A

the integration of different stimulus properties as an object

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25
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

phenomenon of the brain’s ability to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of stimuli

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26
Q

Feature search

A

scanning the environment for a particular feature or features

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27
Q

Feature-integration theory

A

when perceiving a stimulus, features are “registered early, automatically, and in parallel, while objects are identified separately” and at a later stage in processing

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28
Q

Selective attention

A

the capacity for or process of reacting to certain stimuli selectively when several occur simultaneously

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29
Q

Combination search

A

a conjunctive search; you look for the combination that is the conjunction of two features.

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30
Q

Late selection attention model

A

semantic features are what determine our current focus of attention

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31
Q

Early selection attention model

A

emphasize physical features of stimuli are attended to

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32
Q

Dichotic listening task

A

a psychological test commonly used to investigate selective attention within the auditory system

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33
Q

Top-down processing

A

how our brains make use of information that has already been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems; process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to lower-level functions such as the senses

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34
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

processing sensory information as it is coming in

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35
Q

Geons

A

visual input is matched against structural representations of objects in the brain

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36
Q

Features

A

a distinctive attribute or aspect of something

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37
Q

Tachistoscope

A

a device that displays an image for a specific amount of time. It can be used to increase recognition speed, to show something too fast to be consciously recognized, or to test which elements of an image are memorable

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38
Q

Recognition by components

A

a bottom-up process to explain object recognition; we are able to recognize objects by separating them into geons

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39
Q

Word superiority effect

A

phenomenon that people have better recognition of letters presented within words as compared to isolated letters and to letter presented within nonword strings

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40
Q

Gestalt effect

A

ability of the brain to generate whole forms from groupings of lines, shapes, curves, and points

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41
Q

Biederman (1975)

A

hard er to identify pictures that have geons or relations between geons removed than pictures that preserve geons and relations

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42
Q

Feature nets model

A

a model of recognition based on detectors activating on three levels of perception: feature, letter, and word

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43
Q

Response threshold

A

the likelihood of reacting to task-associated stimuli

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44
Q

Change blindness

A

a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it

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45
Q

Capgras syndrome

A

syndrome where people have an irrational belief that someone they know or recognize has been replaced by an imposter

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46
Q

Subjective experience

A

refers to the emotional and cognitive impact of a human experience as opposed to an object experience which are the actual events of the experience

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47
Q

Implicit memory

A

type of long-term memory; it is acquired and used unconsciously, and can affect thoughts and behaviors; procedural memory

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48
Q

Activation level

A

high activation or arousal is what we think of as being fired up and is characterized by a higher than normal heart rate and a feeling of readiness to act

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49
Q

Consciousness

A

the awareness or perception of something by a person

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50
Q

Schema

A

a representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model

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51
Q

Spreading activation

A

a method for searching associative networks, biological or artificial neural networks or semantic networks

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52
Q

Proposition

A

the most basic unit of meaning in a representation; it is the smallest statement that can be judged either true or false

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53
Q

Loftus & Palmer (1974)

A

tested whether the phrasing of the question influences speed estimates; the phrasing of the sentence affects the speed estimate

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54
Q

Types of amnesia

A

retrograde - inability to retrieve information that was acquired before
anterograde - inability to form new memories

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55
Q

Neisser & Harsch (1992)

A

suggesting that FBM is not reliable as it can be affected by post-event information; claim that such findings suggest that FBMs may just be ordinary memories

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56
Q

Misinformation effect

A

happens when a person’s recall of episodic memories because less accurate because of post-event information

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57
Q

Node

A

can represent concepts

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58
Q

Concept

A

refer to the development of the ability to respond to common features of categories of objects or events

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59
Q

Memory accuracy

A

often produces confidence, but confidence does not necessarily indicate accuracy

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60
Q

Template

A

describes the most basic approach to human pattern recognition; assumes every perceived object is stored into long-term memory

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61
Q

Modal model

A

a short-term store, also called working memory or STM, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the LTM store

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62
Q

Primacy effect

A

more likely to remember words at the beginning of a list

63
Q

Recency effect

A

often stronger; the most recently presented items will most likely be remembered best

64
Q

Levels of processing

A

Shallow - leads to fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay
Deep - requires the use of semantic processing which creates a much stronger memory trace

65
Q

Intentional learning

A

persistent, continual process to acquire, understand, and use a category of strategies to improve one’s ability to attain and apply knowledge

66
Q

Smith (1979)

A
  • field study to see how coaches affect motivation and and performance
  • intrinsic motivation improved by extrinsic factors
67
Q

Collins & Quillian

A

proposed that semantic knowledge is underpinned by a set of nodes, each representing a specific feature or concept

68
Q

Categorization

A

the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood

69
Q

Item typicality effects

A

a phenomenon whereby typical items are more easily judged as members of a category than atypical items

70
Q

Encoding specificity

A

human memories are more easily retrieved if external conditions at the time of retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored

71
Q

Semantic memory

A

one of two types of declarative memory; refers to general world knowledge that we have accumulated throughout our lives

72
Q

Procedural memory

A

responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills; stores information on how to perform certain procedures

73
Q

Script

A

a series of behaviors, actions, and consequences that are expected in a particular situation or environment

74
Q

Hypnosis

A

a state of highly focused attention or concentration, often associated with relaxation, heightened suggestibility

75
Q

Intrusion

A

refer to when information that is related to the theme of a certain memory, but was not actually a part of the original episode. becomes associated with the event

76
Q

Decay

A

memory fades due to the mere passage of time

77
Q

Prototypes

A

a mental structure that reflects what is perceived to be a typical example of a category

78
Q

Exemplars

A

concerning the way humans categorize objects and ideas in psychology; argues that individuals make category judgements by comparing new stimuli with instances already stored in memory

79
Q

Fuzzy boundaries

A

the concept is vague in some way, lacking a fixed, precise meaning, without however being unclear or meangingless

80
Q

Production task reaction times

A

used to measure the amount of time that is takes an individual to process information

81
Q

Place of articulation

A

the point of contact where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an articulatory gesture, an active articulator, and a passive location

82
Q

Manner of production

A

we distinguish sounds first according to how the airflow is restricted; there is a load to move through the nose for some speech sounds but not others.

83
Q

Speech segmentation

A

the process of identifying the boundaries between words, syllables, or phonemes in spoken natural language

84
Q

Articulation

A

the formation of clear and distinct sounds in speech

85
Q

Categorical perception

A

phenomenon of perception of distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum

86
Q

Prescriptive rules of language

A

set of norms or rules governing how a language should or should not be used rather than describing the ways in which a language is actually used

87
Q

Descriptive rules of language

A

where you look at what native speakers do and record that as correct

88
Q

Garden-path

A

a grammatically correct sentence that starts in such a way that reader’s most likely interpretation will be incorrect; the reader is lured into a parse that turns out to be a dead end or yields a clearly unintended meaning

89
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

expressive aphasia; characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language, although comprehension generally remains intact

90
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

receptive aphasia; individuals have difficulty understanding written and spoken language

91
Q

Overregularization

A

a part of language-learning process in which children extend regular grammatical patterns to irregular words

92
Q

Linguistic relativity

A

the structure of a language affects its speakers’ world view or cognition

93
Q

Whorf

A

idea that differences between the structures of different languages shape how their speakers perceive and conceptualize the world

94
Q

O’Craven & Kanwisher (2000)

A

same regions involved in perception as inn mental imagery

95
Q

Farah (1985)

A

uses priming to observe imagery and its effects on perception - showing a link between the two

96
Q

Priming

A

the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. It is a technique used to train a person’s memory both in positive and negative ways

97
Q

Perceiving

A

become aware of conscious of something

98
Q

Kosslyn (1978)

A

island experiment; it took longer to scan between greater distances, visual imagery is spatial

99
Q

Depiction

A

to show or represent them in a piece of art

100
Q

Description

A

a spoken account of a person, object, or event

101
Q

Mental rotation

A

ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and 3-dimensional objects as it is related to the visual representation of such rotation within the mind

102
Q

Brain regions used in visualization

A

occipital lobe - located at the back of the head, occupies 20% of the brain’s overall capacity and is responsible for vision

103
Q

Segal & Fusella

A

if the same mental processes are used for imaging and perceiving, images should interfere with signal detection of the same modality

104
Q

Spatial imagery

A

mentally representing spatial relations between the parts or locations of the objects or movements

105
Q

Visual imagery

A

a memory technique that involves constructing mental images when learning new information in order to be able to better recall the information later

106
Q

Eidetic memory

A

an ability to recall images from memory vividly after only a few instances of exposure, with high precision for a brief time after exposure

107
Q

Ambiguous imagery

A

optical illusion images which exploit graphical similarities and other properties of visual system interpretation between two or more distinct image forms

108
Q

Dual coding

A

both visual and verbal information is used to represent information

109
Q

Mental set

A

a framework for thinking about a problem. It can be shaped by habit or by desire; can make it easy to solve a class of problems

110
Q

Representational heuristic

A

used when making judgements about the probability of an uncertain event; makes decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes

111
Q

Availability heuristic

A

relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision

112
Q

Functional fixedness

A

a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way tit is traditionally used.

113
Q

Incubation

A

a process of unconscious recombination of thought elements that were stimulated through

114
Q

Illumination

A

the obscure thing becomes clear; this sudden flash of solution is similar to a ‘aha’ experience

115
Q

Preparation

A

the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for finding new solutions

116
Q

Verification

A

it is necessary to verify whether the solution is correct or not

117
Q

Inducing structure

A

the individual needs to identify the link between the problem’s parts like analogy problems and series of completion

118
Q

Base rate

A

committed when a person judges that an outcome will occur without considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur

119
Q

Gambler’s fallacy

A

the belief that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability becomes higher or lower as the process is repeated

120
Q

Algorithms

A

a problem solving approach where a set of step-by-step procedure provides the correct answer to a particular problem

121
Q

Ill-defined

A

problems that do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solution

122
Q

Well-defined

A

problems that have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions

123
Q

Framing

A

a cognitive bias where people decide on options based on it the options are presented with positive or negative semantics (a loss or a gain)

124
Q

Subgoals

A

giving a name to a group of steps, in a step-by-step description of a process, to explain how the group of steps achieve a related goal

125
Q

Means-end

A

problem solving heuristic; the problem solver begins by envisioning the end, or ultimate goal, and then determines the best strategy for attaining the goal in his current situation.

126
Q

Flynn effect

A

the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores that were measured in many parts of the world

127
Q

Hill climbing

A

simply choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly towards your goal state.

128
Q

Confirmation bias

A

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories

129
Q

Belief perseverance

A

maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it

130
Q

Problem-solving set

A

a person’s predisposition to solve a given problem in a specific manner even though better or more appropriate methods of solving the problem exist

131
Q

Satisficing

A

accept an available option as satisfactory

132
Q

Stereotype

A

an over-generalization belief about a particular category

133
Q

System 1

A

an automatic, fast, and often unconscious way of thinking; it is autonomous and efficient, requiring little energy or attention, but is prone to biases and systematic errors

134
Q

System 2

A

an effortful, slow, and controlled way of thinking

135
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

the process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logically certain conclusion

136
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

the process of making generalized decisions after observing, or witnessing, repeated specific instances of something

137
Q

Tversky & Kahneman (1987)

A
  • to investigate the influence of the way a problem is framed to the decision
  • there was no actual difference between the two groups’ options other than the way they were framed. this indicates that framing of a question impacted the decision
138
Q

Risk seeking

A

a person who has a preference for risk

139
Q

Risk averse

A

a person who prefers lower returns with known risks rather than higher returns with unknown risks

140
Q

Emotion and decision making

A

one way of thinking holds that the mental process of decision-making is rational; a formal process based on optimizing utility

141
Q

Affective forecasting

A

the prediction of one’s emotional state in the future

142
Q

Problem space

A

the entire range of components that exist in the process of finding a solution to a problem

143
Q

Operators

A

people solve problems by searching in a problem space; the problem space consists of the initial state, the goal state, and all possible states in between. the actions that people take in order to move from one state to another

144
Q

Analogies

A

linguistic comparison of two objects that emphasize the similarities between those two objects

145
Q

IQ

A

an intelligence quotient is a total score derived from several standardized tests designed to asses human intelligence

146
Q

Computerized axial tomography (CT)

A

a form of tomography in which a computer controls the motion of the X-ray source and detectors, processes the data, and produces the image

147
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

a form of medical imaging that measures the response of the atomic nuclei of body tissues to high-frequency radio waves when placed in a strong magnetic field, and that produces images of the internal organs.

148
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique that is used to observe metabolic processes in the body as an aid

149
Q

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A

measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow

150
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

the measurement of electrical activity in different parts of the brain and the recording of such activity as a visual trace

151
Q

Transcranial magnetic resolution (TMS)

A

a noninvasive form of brain stimulation in which a changing magnetic field is used to cause electrical current at a specific area of the brain through electromagnetic induction

152
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the bran

153
Q

Event-related potential (ERP)

A

the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event

BCS 111 (1 decks)

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