BCH 204 Flashcards
What is nutrition?
Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the relationship between diet, health, and disease.
Macronutrients include
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fats
Micronutrients include
Vitamins
Minerals
What are micronutrients?
Micronutrients are essential dietary elements required by organisms in varying quantities throughout life to orchestrate a range of physiological functions to maintain health.
Difference between vitamins and minerals
Vitamins are organic compounds made by plants and animals which can be broken down by heat, acid or air.
On the other hand, minerals are inorganic, exist in soil or water and cannot be broken down.
Types of vitamins and minerals
• water-soluble vitamins
• fat-soluble vitamins
• macrominerals and
• trace minerals.
Function of Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Helps convert nutrients (carbohydrates, fats abs proteins) into energy
Function of Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Necessary for energy production, cell function and fat metabolism.
Function of Vitamin B3 (niacin)
cell respiration, proper circulation and healthy skin, functioning of the nervous system, and normal secretion of bile and stomach fluids
Function of Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)
Necessary for fatty acid synthesis.
Function of Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Helps the body release sugar from stored carbohydrates for energy and create red blood cells.
Co-enzyme in amino acid synthesis
Function of Vitamin B7 (biotin)
Plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids and glucose.
Function of Vitamin B9 (folate)
Important for proper cell division.
Function of Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
Necessary for red blood cell formation and proper nervous system and brain function.
Function of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
- Required for the creation of neurotransmitters and collagen
- Powerful antioxidant
- Increases iron absorption
- Reduces risk of cataract formation
- Promotes wound healing
- Stimulates phagocytic action of leukocytes
- Aids in the formation of
liver bile
Function of Vitamin A
Aids in proper vision and organ function
Functions of Vitamin D
Promotes proper immune function and assists in calcium absorption and bone growth
Function of Vitamin E
Helps in immune function and acts as an antioxidant which protects cells from damage
Function of Vitamin K
Required for blood clotting and proper bone development
Function of Calcium
Necessary for proper structure and function of bones and teeth.
Assists in muscle function and blood vessel contraction.
Function of Phosphorus
Forms a part of bone and cell membrane structure.
Function of Magnesium
1.regulation of blood pressure.
2. Parts of teeth and bone
3. Helps body use carbohydrates
4. Involved in nerve and muscle contractions
Function of Sodium
Electrolyte that aids fluid balance and maintenance of blood pressure.
Regulates nerve impulses and muscle contractions
Function of Chloride
Often found in combination with sodium. Helps maintain fluid balance and used to make digestive juices.
Function of Potassium
Electrolyte that maintains fluid status in cells and helps with nerve transmission and muscle function.
Function of Sulfur
Part of every living tissue and contained in the amino acids methionine and cysteine
Examples of trace minerals
Selenium
Copper
Iodine
Manganese
Fluoride
Iron
Zinc
Examples of macro minerals
Calcium
Chloride
Potassium
Phosphorous
Sodium
Sulphur
Magnesium
Function of iron
Helps provide oxygen to muscles and assists in the creation of certain
hormones
Forms red blood cells
Function of Manganese
Assists in carbohydrate, amino acid and cholesterol metabolism
Function of copper
Required for connective tissue formation, as well as normal brain and
nervous system function
Function of Zinc
Necessary for normal growth, immune function and wound healing
Function of Iodine
Assists in thyroid regulation
Function of Fluoride
Necessary for the development of bones and teeth
Function of Selenium
Important for thyroid health, reproduction and defense against
oxidative damage
Role of carbohydrates
- Primary source of energy for the brain
- muscle contractions
- maintenance of body temp
- heartbeat
- digestion
Function of protein
Protein also plays a vital role in many important processes such as aiding the immune system, biochemical reactions, and providing structure and support for cells.
Protein is present in every body cell and adequate protein intake is important for keeping the muscles, bones, and tissues healthy.
Define obesity
A disorder of body weight regulatory system characterized by accumulation of excess fat, sedentary lifestyle, and consumption of a high calorie diet
Diseases associated with obesity
Hypertension
Type II diabetes
Cancer
Atherosclerosis
Stroke
Coronary heart disease
BMI of an underweight individual
Less than 18.5
BMI of a normal individual
18.5-24.9
BMI of an overweight/ grade 1 individual
25-29.9
BMI of an obese/ grade 2 individual
30-39.9
BMI of a morbidly obese / grade 3 individual
Greater than 40
Normal waist size for men
102 cm
Normal waist size for women
88cm
What is a calorie?
Is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 mL of water by 1 °C
RDA of carbohydrates
RDA: 130 grams/day for adults and children
Characteristics of Carboydrates
Made of organic compounds carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Their major role in diet is energy production.
Carbohydrates consumed in the diet that are not immediately used for energy are stored as glycogen.
Carbohydrate intake above RDA increases the risk of__________?
CHO intake above RDA causes: weight gain or obesity due to increased fat storage in adipose tissue.
Examples and description of simple sugars
- Glucose is the predominant sugar in nature and the basic building block of most other carbohydrates.
- Fructose, or fruit sugar, is the sweetest of the monosaccharides and is found in varying levels in different types of fruits.
- Galactose joins with glucose to form the disaccharide lactose, the principal sugar found in milk.
- Other disaccharides include maltose, two glucose molecules bound together, and sucrose (table sugar), formed by glucose and fructose linked together.
Which are the only comple carbohydrates that humans can fully digest?
Glycogen and Starch
Role of glycogen in the body
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscle cells and can be broken down into single glucose molecules to provide a rapid source of energy.
Because glycogen contains many water molecules, it is large and bulky and therefore unsuitable for long-term energy storage.
Thus, if a person continues to consume more carbohydrates than the body can use or store, the body will convert the sugar into fat for long-term storage.
What is dietary fiber? Give examples
This carbohydrate cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes.
Found in eatable plants such as fruits vegetables, grains and legumes.
They can be classified according to their source e.g if from grain, is called cereal fiber.
Soluble fiber partially dissolves in water and insoluble fiber does not.
E.g
* Cellulose
* Hemicellulose
* Lignin
* Pectin
* Gums
* Mucilages.
RDA of fiber for adults and children
Adults 21-38g/day
19g/day
What is glycemic index explaining high and low?
It measures how fast and how far blood sugar will rise after consuming carbohydrates.
Foods that are considered to have a high glycemic index are converted almost immediately to blood sugar which causes it to rise rapidly e.g potatoes, white rice, white flour, corn syrup e.t.c.
Foods that are considered to have a low glycemic index are digested slower causing a slower rise in blood sugar. Examples are whole grains (brown rice, 100% whole wheat bread, whole grain pasta, high fibre cereals), high fibre fruits and vegetables, and many legumes.
Characteristics of protein
Proteins supply amino acids and amino nitrogen to the body. Proteins are the only source of nitrogen in the body.
Made of organic compounds carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Formation of the brain, nervous system, blood, muscle, skin and hair.
Forms the transport mechanism for iron, vitamins, minerals, fats and oxygen; and is the key to acid–base and fluid balance.
Protein forms hormones, enzymes, and antibodies
RDA for proteins
RDA: Normal adults:
0.8g/kg body weight for adults,
30g/kg for pregnancy/ lactation and
2.0g/kg children
What is the only source of Nitrogen in the body
Proteins
What is an essential amino acid?
Amino acids that cannot be produced by the body
What are the essential amino acids
Histidine (not essential for adults), Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine.
Characteristics of fats
Provide 9 Kcalories per gram; it is an energy-yielding nutrient
Lipids are made of organic molecules carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats consist of glycerol fatty acids joined by an ester bond.
Fats serve many critical functions in the human body, including insulation, cell structure, nerve transmission, vitamin absorption, and hormone production.
The body stores adipose tissue (fat) as triglyceride.
Types of fats
Triglycerides - composed of three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule.
Saturated fatty acid - fatty acid with carbon chains fully saturated with hydrogen.
Monounsaturated fatty acid - fatty acid that has a carbon chain with one unsaturated double bond.
Polyunsaturated fatty acid - fatty acid that has two or more double bonds on the carbon chain.
Benefits of dietary fibers
Promotes feeling of Fullness By slowing gastric emptying
Reduces exposure of gut to carcinogens (free radicals of the carcinogen are excreted with the soluble fiber)
Lowers serum LDL levels
Slows gastric emptying (long-term glucose control in patients with diabetes mellitus)
Characteristics of monounsaturated fatty acids
Common sources include olive, canola and peanut oils.
Liquid at room temperature, starts to harden when chilled.
Helps with weight loss, reduces the risk if heart diseases and decreases inflammation.
Characteristics of trans fats
Made by hydrogenation; heating liquid oils in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst.
This is the worse type of fat for the heart, blood vessels, and the rest of the body.
It raises bad LDL and lowers good HDL.
Create inflammation
Contributes to insulin resistance.
Characteristics of omega 3 fatty acids
Omega-3 fatty acids come in three forms:
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), ALA is found mainly in plant oils such as flaxseed, soybean, and canola oils
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
Docosahexanoic acid (DHA).
DHA and EPA omega-3 fatty acids are naturally found in egg yolk and cold-water fish and shellfish like tuna, salmon, mackerel, cod, crab, shrimp and oyster.
Role of omega 3 fatty acids
Omega-3s reduce blood clotting, dilate blood vessels and reduce inflammation.
They are important for eye and brain development (and are especially important for a growing fetus in the late stages of pregnancy).
Act to reduce cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
Characteristics of omega 6 fatty acids
found in flaxseed, canola, and soybean oils and green leaves.
• Generally consumed in abundance.
Role of omega 6 fatty acids
It works opposite to omega-3s in that it seems to contribute to inflammation and blood clotting.
What is nitrogen balance?
Nitrogen balance (NB) is a measure of protein status. It occurs when nitrogen intake equals nitrogen output. It is referred to as nitrogen equilibrium.
When is NB positive?
A positive NB or anabolic state exists when nitrogen intake exceeds nitrogen output.
During growth, pregnancy, lactation, and recovery from convalescence, the body is in positive nitrogen balance since it is retaining nitrogen for the purpose of synthesizing new protein tissues.
When is NB negative?
When nitrogen excretion is greater than nitrogen intake, a negative NB or catabolic state exists.
During dietary deprivation, most illnesses, and certain types of stress, the body loses nitrogen and is in negative balance. The healthy adult is in nitrogen equilibrium.
Methods of assessing protein quality
- Chemical score or amino acid score
- Net protein utilization (NPU)
NPU = Nitrogen retained by the body x 100 / nitrogen intake - Protein efficiency ratio (PER)
PER = Gain in body weight it gm/ protein ingested in gm - Biological value (BV).
BV = Nitrogen retained/nitrogen absorbed
What is the chemical score?
Chemical score or amino acid score: It is a measure of the concentration of each essential amino acid in the test protein which is then compared with reference protein (usually egg protein)
This mode of chemical assessment does not take into account the digestibility of dietary proteins. Hence, biological methods based on growth or nitrogen (N) retention are used to determine the overall quality of a protein.
Role of omega 3 fatty acids
Omega-3s reduce blood clotting, dilate blood vessels and reduce inflammation.
They are important for eye and brain development (and are especially important for a growing fetus in the late stages of pregnancy).
Act to reduce cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
Nutritional status
Nutritional status is the current status of an individual or population in relation to their state of nourishment.
Factors that determine nutritional status
Internal: Age, gender, nutrition, behaviour, physical activity, diseases
Liver and kidney disease can prevent activation of vitamin D and storage or utilization of many other nutrients such as vitamin A, vitamin B12 and folic acid (which of these can be stored??).
Interference by the use of drugs.
External: food safety, cultural, social and economic factors
List the Nutrition assessment system
O Surveys
O Surveillance
O Screening
O Interventions.
Methods involved in Nutrition assessment
O Dietary e.g. questionnaire
O Anthropometric (BMI, weight, height etc)
O Biochemical (blood sugar and urine test)
O Clinical (illness due to improper nutrient consumption)
O Sociologic
Nutritional Considerations for Vegetarians
O A vegetarian diet poses certain problems in terms of micronutrient intake.
O Vitamin B12 is found principally in foods of animal origin.
O Vegetarians may not develop pernicious anaemia (by consuming dairy products, eggs, shitake mushrooms, yogurt, cheese and fortified cereals)
Nutritional Needs of Elderly Persons
O Recent research shows altered needs of elderly persons for several essential nutrients (the absorption and utilization of Vit. B6 and Vit. B12).
O Elevated blood levels of homocysteine (??homologue of aa) has been shown to be a risk factor for atherosclerosis.
O Homocysteine is metabolized to methionine and cysteine in reactions requiring folic acid, B12 and B6.
OHigh levels of homocysteine poses risk of heart disease
List 2 metabolic disorders
O Lactose intolerance
O Diabetes Mellitus
Explain Lactose Intolerance
O Incomplete digestion of lactose
O Lactase production ceases in some non-human mammals.
O Most humans follow this pattern, and hence may experience lactose intolerance after the consumption of milk or dairy products.
O However, there is individual variation in symptomatology.
O Anaerobic bacteria in the gut converts undigested lactose in the small intestine to gases and toxins (???).
O Gut symptoms include pain, distension, gas, tummy rumbling, diarrhea or constipation.
O Non gut symptoms include headache, muscle pain, fatigue
O CH4 is a useful marker for lactose intolerance.
O H2, CH4 and H2S from bacteria are absorbed into the blood and can be detected in the breath clinically.
Types of diabetes mellitus
O Insulin dependent ( type 1)
O Non-Insulin dependent (type 2)
O Gestational
Describe the body’s healthy response to insulin
• After the consumption of a meal
• Body breaks it down into glucose (sugar), the
main source of energy.
• Glucose enters the bloodstream and signals the pancreas to release insulin.
• Insulin sends the glucose in the blood (blood sugar) to muscle, fat, and liver cells to be used for energy or stored for later use.
The blood sugar enters the cells, hence reducing the levels in the bloodstream, which signals the pancreas to stop producing insulin.
What is insulin resistance?
Insulin resistant cells results to increased blood sugar and insulin levels………..risk of type 2 diabetes and other diseases.
Continuous production of insulin by the pancreas, and the cells are unable to respond, increasing the blood glucose concentration…….resistant cells
Causes of Insulin resistance
• Genetics
• Increased triglycerides……..inflammatory
hormones ???
• Increased stress……. Increase cortisol……increased fat
• Eating a diet high in sugar and processed foods
• Physical Inactivity
• Imbalance in the gut microbiome
• Poor sleep habits
• Sleep apnea
Meaning of polyuria
Excessive urination
Common symptoms of diabetes
Polyuria,
Polyphagia,
Polydipsia
Slow wound healing resulting in amputation
Meaning of polyphagia
excessive eating
Meaning of polydipsia
Excessive thirst
Agents for coping with diabetes
Insulin shots
Oral Hypoglycemic agents
Example of oral hypoglycemic agents
O Biguanides derivatives: Metformin;
O Sulphonylureas derivatives: glimepiride;
O Postprandial glucose regulators: Repaglinide and Nateglinide;
Thiazolidinediones derivatives: Pioglitazone and Rosiglitazone
O Acarbose: Acts by inhibiting alpha glucosidases and amylases. This enzyme delays the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates to simple sugars. A competitive inhibitor for pancreatic alpha amylase and intestinal alpha glucosidase
Discuss insulin injection
O Porcine and bovine insulins are commonly used in the treatment of human diabetics.
O Allergic response to the injected insulin could occur because of the differences in amino acid sequence from the human insulin.
Why is porcine insulin more acceptable than bovine insulin?
O Pig (porcine) insulin is more acceptable than cow (bovine) insulin in insulin reactive individuals.
O It is more similar in sequence to human insulin.
However, the human insulin made using genetically engineered bacteria is presently available for clinical use.
What is the standard diet for a person with diabetes?
O The American Diabetes Association has recommended diets low in fat and high in complex carbohydrates and fibre for diabetics.
Diabetics are prone to hyperlipidemia(high cholesterol) with a risk of heart disease
The debate is that foods rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (e.g ? olive, peanut and canola oil) tend to lower blood sugar, reduce LDL and increase HDL as compared to diet rich in complex carbohydrates.
O However, diets high in monounsaturated fatty acids tend to have higher caloric density and are inappropriate for overweight individuals with type II diabetes.
O Thus, a single diet may not be appropriate for all diabetics.
What changes were made to the advised diabetic diet in 1994
In 1994 the American Diabetes Association abandoned the concept of a single diabetic diet.
O Recommendations focused on low levels of glucose, lipid, and normal blood pressure coupled with weight reduction based on the individual.
What is a nutritional disorder?
A disease that occurs when an individuals intake of food lacks the proper amount of nutrient for healthy function or an individual cannot absorb nutrient from food.
Nutritional disorders are caused by
Under nutrition
Over Nutrition
Incorrect balance of nutrients
What is under nutrition?
A condition where there is insufficient food to satisfy energy needs
Main characteristics of under nutrition
Weight loss
Failure to thrive
Wasting of body fat and muscle
Inadequate growth and development in children
Low birth weight in infants
Diminished mental function
Increased susceptibility to disease
What is malnutrition?
An impaired function that results from protracted deficiencies or excess nutrients like protein, essential FA, vitamins and minerals
Malnutrition can be due to
Fasting
Anorexia nervosa
Persistent vomiting
Inability to swallow
Impaired digestion
Chronic illness
Problems with intestinal absorption
Describe xeropthalmia
abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, with inflammation and ridge formation, typically associated with vitamin A deficiency
Sources of vitamin A
Liver, spinach, sweet potato and carrots
Describe rickets
Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency making it difficult to maintain proper calcium and phosphorus levels in bones
Sources of Vitamin D
Sun exposure
Cod liver oil
Fish oil
Describe Beri Beri
A disease in which the body doesn’t have enough vitamin B1 (thiamin).
Beriberi is usually caused by poor diet or alcoholism.
Symptoms include loss of appetite, weakness, pain in the limbs, shortness of breath and swollen feet or legs.
Sourced of vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Meat
some fresh fruits (such as bananas and oranges)
nuts
Green vegetables
wholegrain bread
some fortified breakfast cereals.
liver
Describe pellegra
Pellagra is a systemic disease caused by a severe deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3). It affects the whole body and can eventually lead to death.
It’s marked by dementia, diarrhoea, and dermatitis (the 3 D’s).
Sources of Vitamin B3 Niacin
mushroom, tuna, prawn, liver, peanut and beef
Describe scurvy
Scurvy is a disease caused by a serious vitamin C deficiency. Not eating enough fruits and vegetables is the main cause of the disease. Left untreated, scurvy can lead to bleeding gums, loosened teeth, delayed wound healing and bleeding under skin
Sources of vitamin C
Citrus fruits, amla, green leafy vegetables and tomato
Iron deficiency
iron deficiency anaemia is due to insufficient iron. Without enough iron, your body can’t produce enough of a substance in red blood cells that enables them to carry oxygen (haemoglobin). As a result, iron deficiency anaemia may leave you tired and short of breath.
Sources of iron
Red meat, spinach and broccoli
Describe goitre
A goitre is a lump or swelling at the front of the neck caused by a swollen thyroid.
A goitre commonly develops as a result of iodine deficiency or inflammation of the thyroid gland
Source of iodine
fish, dairy products, iodized salt
Describe marasmus
Marasmus is a severe form of malnutrition — specifically, protein-energy undernutrition. It results from an overall lack of calories, a deficiency of all macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and protein.
Marasmus occurs in famine (extreme scarcity of food) areas when infants are weaned from breast milk and given inadequate bottle feedings of thin watery gruels
(liquid food) of native cereals or other plant foods.
These watery gruels are usually deficient in both
calories and proteins.
Describe Kwashiokor
Kwashiorkor is a disease marked by severe protein malnutrition and bilateral extremity swelling.
Describe ketosis
a metabolic state characterized by raised levels of ketone bodies in the body tissues, which is typically pathological in conditions such as diabetes, or maybe the consequence of a diet that is very low in carbohydrates
Describe ketogenesis
Ketogenesis is a metabolic pathway that produces ketone bodies (formed by the liver), which provide an alternative form of energy for the body. The body is constantly producing small amounts of ketone bodies that can make 22 ATP each in normal circumstances, and it is regulated mainly by insulin.
Causes of iron deficiency
- Deficient intake: Including reduced bioavailability of iron due to dietary fiber, phytates, oxalates, etc.
- Impaired absorption: For example, intestinal malabsorptive disease and abdominal surgery.
- Excessive loss: For example, menstrual blood loss in women and in men from gastrointestinal bleeding (in peptic ulcer, diverticulosis or malignancy)
Define a balanced diet
A balanced diet is defined as one which contains a variety of foods in such quantities and proportions that the need for energy, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, fats, carbohydrate and other nutrients is adequately met for maintaining health, vitality and general well-being and also makes a small provision for extra nutrients to withstand short duration of illness.
Difference between kwashiokor and marasmus
Features Kwashiorkor – Marasmus
Age of onset 1-5 year– below 1 year
Edema Present – Absent
Serum albumin Hypoalbuminemia – Normal or slightly
decreased
Fatty liver Present – Absent
Muscle wasting Absent or mild – Severe
Fat reserves Normal to mildly diminished – Absent
Marasmus is characterized by
– Growth retardation
– Anemia
– Fat and muscle wasting.
What causes the emeciated appearance in marasmus
- Severe loss of body fat and muscle results in an
emaciated appearance. Starvation adaptations cause
serum protein and electrolyte concentrations to
remain within their normal range and do not show
edema
Definition of malnutrition
This occurs when the body does not receive enough nutirents to maintain good health, leading to stunted growth, weakened immume system and increased risk of infection
What is iron deficiency anemia
A type of anemia that occurs when the body does noy have enough iron to produce Hb, the protein in rbc’s that carries O2 throughout the body
Define vitamin deficiency
a deficiency in vitamins such as vit. D, B12 or C can lead to a range of health problems
What is an eating disorder?
e.g. anorexia nervosa or bulimia, can lead to severe nutritional deficiencies and other health problems
Define diabetes
A metabolic disordor that occurs when the body cannot properly use glucose for energy, leading to problems such as nerve damage, kidney disease and blindness.
What is gout?
A form of arthiritis that occurs when uric acid builds up in the blood stream and causes inflammation in the joints. It is often caused by a diet high in purine-rich foods such as red meat and shell fish
Why is it important to maintaina a healthy balanced diet?
To prevent nutritional disorders
Consult a health professional for proper treatment and diagnosis
What is net protein utilization
Net protein utilization (NPU): It is a product of digestibility coefficient and biological value divided by 100. Biological measures of NPU gives a more complete expression (both absorption and retention) of protein quality than the amino acid score as said above. It is calculated by the following formula:
NPU = Nitrogen retained by the body × 100 / Nitrogen intake
The protein requirement varies with the NPU of dietary protein. If the NPU is low, the protein requirement is high and vice versa.
What is protein efficiency ratio
Protein efficiency ratio (PER): The overall quality, i.e. nutritive value of a food protein can be determined with laboratory animal like rat as follows. The gain in weight of young animals per gm of protein consumed is measured and the value obtained is used to determine the protein efficiency ratio (PER) as follows:
•PER = Gain in body weight in gm / Protein ingested in gm
What is biological value
Biological value : Biological value of protein is defined as the percentage of absorbed nitrogen retained by the body
Nitrogen retained x100 / nitrogen absorbed
List possible iodine deficiencies
Goiter, hypothyroidism, iodine deficiency disorders, increased risk of stillbirth, birth defects infant mortality, cognitive impairment
List possible calcium deficiencies
Decreased bone mineralization,
Rickets, Osteoporosis
List iron deficiencies
Iron deficiency anemia,
reduced learning and work capacity,
maternal and infant mortality.
Low birth weight
List zinc deficiencies
Poor pregnancy outcome,
impaired growth (stunting), genetic disorders,
decreased resistance to infectious diseases
List fluoride deficiencies
Increased dental decay,
affects bone health
List selenium deficiencies
Cardiomyopathy, increased cancer and
cardiovascular risk
Effects of carbohydrate deficiencies
If deficient in carbohydrate, the body will utilize protein and fats for energy. Other symptoms of deficiencies include less energy, constipation, bad breath, you feel hungry all the time.
 Essential fatty acids part of the polyunsaturated fatty acids
•E. Linoleic acid an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, its first double bond is at the 6th carbon and this is why it can be called Omega 6.
•F. Linolenic acid an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, its first double bond is at the 3rd carbon and this is why it can be called Omega 3, and is the main member of the omega-3 family.
•G. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) , may be derived inefficiently from linolenic acid and is the main fatty acid found in fish, also called omega 3.
•H. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHE), is an omega 3 fatty acid, is synthesized in body from alph-linolenic acid, and is present in fish. DHA is present in retina and brain.
Nonessential fatty acids part of the polyunsaturated fatty acids
•I. Sterols serve a vital function in the body, are produced by the body, and are not essential nutrients e.g cholesterol. It doesn’t have a glycerol backbone or fatty acids, but because it is impermeable in water, it is a lipid.
•J. CIS- Trans Fatty acids hydrogenation makes monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids go from a state of their original form that is cis to a trans form. They may stimulate cholesterol synthesis, and are potentially carcinogenic.

 Characteristics of vitamins
Organic compounds present in small quantities in different types of food
Non-caloric they don’t give energy Essential
most act as enzymes help in various biochemical processes in cell
required in very small amounts importance for growth and maintain good health
 People that take alcohol Could be deficient in
Thiamine, Folic Acid, Vit. B6
Formula for BMI
Weight (kg)/ height^2 (m)
What is body mass index
This is an assessment which provides a measure of body weight indirectly and correlates with amounts of fats in the body of most individuals except athletes usually have large amounts of lean muscle mass BMI is measured as a ratio of weight in kilograms and height in meter square
 Characteristics of upper body obesity/android/apple shape
More fat deposits in the trunk
Waist hip ratio: >1 males
> 0.8 females 
Characteristics of lower body obesity/gynaecoid/pear-shaped
Fat deposits in hips and thighs
Waist hip ratio:
< 1 males
< 0.8 females
Which shape has low risk of metabolic disease
Gynecoid shape has low risk of metabolic disease than android
The android shape is more common in men and the gynecoid shape is more common in females true/false
TRUE
Difference between subcutaneous adipocytes from the lower body (gluteofemoral) region and the abdominal region
Subcutaneous adipocytes from the lower body are larger and deposit fat efficiently and mobilize free fatty acids more slowly than those from abdominal subcutaneous deposits.
Abdominal subcutaneous and visceral deposits are active with high rates of lipolysis contributing to high-availability of free fatty acids.
This may contribute to the higher risk found in individuals with upper body obesity
Effects of over nutrition on fat cells
Overnutrition results in hypertrophy (Increase in Cell size) and hyperplasia (Increase in cell number) of fat cells this is the basis for obesity
What is basal metabolic rate
This is the energy expenditure in a resting pose absorbent of state represents energy required to maintain normal body functions e.g. respiration blood flow ion transports cellular integrity
In sedentary adults it represents about 50 to 70% of the energy expenditure
it’s about 800 kcal for a 70 KG man
1300 kcal for a 50 KG woman
What Thermic affect (specific dynamic action) of food?
Heat production in the body increases by 30% above rest in level during digestion and absorption of food this is a thermic affect of food food (induced thermogenesis) amounts to 5 to 10% of energy expenditure over 24 hour period
Effects of physical activity on energy expenditure
Muscular activity provides the greatest energy in energy expenditure. Amount of energy utilize depends on the intensity duration of the exercise, a sedentary person may require 30 to 50% above resting rate where is a highly active individual may require 100% more calories above Resting basal rate
What is energy requirement
This is the average energy intake predicted to maintain an energy balance (energy consumed = energy expended) in a healthy adult adjusted with age gender and height.
What is the energy content or calorific value of food
This is the energy released by burning 1 g of food in a calorimeter
Calories required by adults
Sedentary adult requires = 30kcal /kg/day
Moderate activity = 35kcal/kg/day
Very active adult = 40kcal/kg/day
