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AUDE 6120 - Pharmacology and Ototoxicity > Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology > Flashcards

Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is biochemistry?

A

The study of the molecular basis of life
Can explain processes within other life science disciplines

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2
Q

What is an ion?

A

An electrically charged atom or molecule formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons

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3
Q

Does each ring of a atom have a max number of electrons it can hold?

A

Yes
The first (inner) ring can only hold 2 electrons
The second ring can hold 8
The third ring can hold 18
The fourth ring can hold 32

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4
Q

What results if an atomic shell has lost electrons?

A

There will be more protons than electrons giving the ion a positive charge
Cation

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5
Q

What results if electrons are added to a shell?

A

There will be more electrons than protons and the ion will be negatively charged
Anion

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6
Q

Are cations and anions also called electrolytes?

A

Yes because they facilitate conductance of electrical current

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7
Q

What is a molecule?

A

The smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance
Made up of two or more atoms linked by a chemical bond

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8
Q

Does the electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions brings particles together to create an ionic compound?

A

Yes

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9
Q

What are radicals?

A

An uncharged atom (equal number of electrons and protons) but without a full outer shell

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10
Q

When are atoms most stable?

A

When their outermost electron shell is full

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11
Q

Are free radicals common?

A

Yes, free oxygen radicals are released from many processes of cell chemistry
Too many free radicals damage other molecules over time, may result in aging effects and cancers

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12
Q

What is a compound?

A

The combination of less than or equal to 2 elements with a chemical union
Can be converted into simpler forms by chemical means
Combine in a reproducible way

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13
Q

What is a mixture?

A

Consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled
Can be separated into its components by physical means
Often retains many of the properties of its compound

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14
Q

What is a non-uniform mixture?

A

Consists of two or more substances without fixed properties and without chemical bonding
Each substance keeps its original properties

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15
Q

What is the biological hierarchy?

A

Atomic
Molecular
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organism
Population
Ecosystem

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16
Q

What does chemistry deal with?

A

Identification of the substances of which matter is composed
The investigation of the properties of substances
The ways in which substances interact, combine, and change
The use of these processes to form new substances

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17
Q

What is the structural formula of a chemical compound?

A

A graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged

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18
Q

What is the protein structure of a chemical compound?

A

Biomolecular structure of a protein molecule

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19
Q

What is a chemical bond?

A

An attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances containing two or more atoms

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20
Q

How many elements are there?

A

Only about 118
Combine through chemical bonds to form billions of different substances

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21
Q

What are the different types of bonds?

A

Covalent and non-covalent bonds

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22
Q

What are some examples of non-covalent bonds?

A

Electrostatic bonds (ionic)
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrophobic attractions
van der Waals bonds

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23
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

Bonding between nonmetals
Sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules
Molecules held together by the mutual affinity for their shared electrons
Covalent bonds are the force that hold proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids together

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24
Q

What is the strongest and most stable type of chemical bond?

A

Covalent bonds
The energy required to break these bonds is so great, often seen as irreversible

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25
Q

Are covalent bonds typically involved in drug receptor interactions?

A

No

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26
Q

What is a hydrogen bond?

A

A special type of force between a positive hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur

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27
Q

Is a hydrogen bond weaker than covalent and ionic bonds?

A

Yes
When atoms are close together, and several bonds are formed, it increases the strength of the bond

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28
Q

Is any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen or nitrogen atom capable of hydrogen bonding?

A

Yes
The hydrogen bonding makes the molecules “stickier”, and more heat is necessary to separate them

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29
Q

What critical functions do hydrogen bonds perform?

A

Holding the two strands of the DNA double helix together
Holding polypeptides together
Helping enzymes bind to their substrate
Helping antibodies bind to their antigen
Helping transcription factors bind to each other
Helping transcription factors bind to DNA

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30
Q

What is an ionic bond?

A

Bonding between metal and nonmetal
Two ions of opposite charges
Transfer of greater than or equal to one electron from a metal onto a nonmetal
Negatively charges atoms are attracted to atoms with positive charge

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31
Q

Are ionic bonds stronger than hydrogen bonds?

A

Yes, but not as strogn as covalent bonds

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32
Q

Are ionic bonds the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site?

A

Yes

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33
Q

What are van der waals bonds?

A

Molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range
These areas interact with transient areas of opposite charges on another molecule
The bigger the atom or molecule, the bigger the force

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34
Q

What is the most common bond between atoms?

A

Van der waal bonds

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35
Q

Are van der waal bonds weaker than covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds?

A

Yes

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36
Q

When do van der waal forces operate?

A

Only when molecules pass very close to each other

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37
Q

What is oxidation and reduction?

A

Family of reactions that are concerned with transfer electrons
Redox

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38
Q

What is oxidation?

A

Refers to the loss of electrons

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39
Q

What is reduction?

A

Refers to the gain of electrons

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40
Q

Is each reaction itself a half-reaction (either oxidation or reduction)?

A

Yes, two half-reactions form a whole reaction
Redox reactions are a matched set

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41
Q

What are metal atoms characterized by?

A

Their tendency to be oxidized (or lose one or more electron)
Forms a positively charged ion (cation)

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42
Q

What happens to the electrons that are lost by the metal atom?

A

They are gained by the non-metal (reduction)
Forms a negatively charged ion (anion)

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43
Q

What is oxidative stress?

A

A disturbance (imbalance) between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS - free radicals and peroxides) produced by most body reactions which would allow it to easily repair the resulting damage
Too much ROS

44
Q

What is the ROS?

A

Free radicals and peroxides
Biologic systems antioxidant defense

45
Q

What do disturbances in the redox environment result in?

A

Excess ROS that can damage components of cells, including proteins, lipids, and DNA

46
Q

Are oxidative stress and inflammation believed to go hand in hand?

A

Yes
Can result in aging and neurodegeneration
Diabetes, some cancers, atherosclerosis, parkinsons, and alzheimers

47
Q

Can severe oxidative stress cause cell death by necrosis?

A

Yes

48
Q

Can moderate oxidation trigger apoptosis?

A

Yes

49
Q

What are some benefits to ROS?

A

Can be used by the immune system to attack and kill pathogens
Can be used in cell signaling

50
Q

How is overproduction of ROS prevented?

A

Natural antioxidants that occur in the body
Antioxidants obtained from food

51
Q

What is glutathione?

A

A naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins like free radicals
Has electron donating characteristic (oxidation)

52
Q

Is glutathione an important protector within the auditory-vestibular system?

A

Yes

53
Q

What is inflammation?

A

Part of a complex biological immune response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli (pathogens, physical trauma, chemical trauma)
Necessary response that allows the body to destroy invading organisms and repair itself

54
Q

In some disorders, can the inflammatory process become continuous and chronic?

A

Yes, although it is normally self-limiting
Chronic inflammatory diseases
Can cause lots of problems (damaging to the body)

55
Q

Does chronic inflammation have active inflammation and tissue destruction?

A

Yes

56
Q

Does the chronic inflammatory process induce oxidative stress?

A

Yes, that reduces the cellular antioxidant capacity
Overproduced ROS react with cell membrane fatty acids and proteins impairing their function permanently
Can lead to mutation and DNA damage

57
Q

What are some risk factors for chronic inflammation?

A

Hypoxia (COPD?), obesity, hyperglycemia, and smoking

58
Q

Can chronic inflammation be a predisposing factor for some cancers and accelerated aging?

A

Yes
Also thought to play a role in age-related diseases

59
Q

What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

A

Redness (vasodilation, increased blood flow)
Swelling (edema)
Heat (increased blood flow to area, fever brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation)
Pain (distortion of tissues caused by edema)
Loss of function (pain or severe swelling that prevents motion)

60
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells
Organization of proteins into 3D structure results in an enzyme

61
Q

What are the molecules at the beginning of the process in enzymatic reactions?

A

Substrates

62
Q

What does the enzyme convert substrates into?

A

Different molecules (products)

63
Q

Does the set of enzymes made in a cell determine which metabolic pathways will occur in that cell?

A

Yes

64
Q

How are enzymes named?

A

End in -ase of the name of compounds that they act on
Collagenase, lactase

65
Q

Are enzymes and substrates specific shapes?

A

Yes
If the enzyme and substrate don’t match, a reaction may not occur
Or the enzyme can slightly modify its shape to accommodate several substrates

66
Q

Can enzyme activity be affect by other molecules?

A

Inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity
Activators are molecules that increase enzyme activity

67
Q

What other things can enzyme activity be affected by?

A

Temperature, chemical environment (e.g. pH), and the concentration of the substrate

68
Q

What enzymes are used commercially?

A

Synthesis of antibiotics
Laundry detergent (break down protein or fat on clothes)
Meat tenderizers (powder that breaks down proteins)

69
Q

What is a receptor?

A

A protein molecule that is embedded in the cell surface or in the cytoplasm
Allows communication between the cell and the world outside the cell

70
Q

Do receptors allow extracellular molecules (ligands) such as hormones, NT, toxins, or drugs to attach to it?

A

Yes, this results in a change in cell function

71
Q

What kind of bonds are receptor-ligand bonds?

A

Ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der waal forces

72
Q

Do some ligands just block receptors without resulting in any response?

A

Yes blocker drugs act like plugs and are often used to treat hypertension

73
Q

What are hormones?

A

A chemical substance produced and released by one set of cells and transported in the bloodstream to another to effect physiological activity (such as growth or metabolism)

74
Q

Is only a small amount of a hormone required to alter cell metabolism?

A

Yes
They are very powerful

75
Q

Are hormones also chemical messengers?

A

Yes, they transport signals from one cell to another

76
Q

Are hormone reactions fast or slow?

A

Slower than those associated with NT

77
Q

What are some examples of hormones?

A

Thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone

78
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

A chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body

79
Q

In most cases, when is a NT released from the axon?

A

After an action potential has reached the synapse

80
Q

What is reuptake?

A

When the NT attaches to the receptor site and is reabsorbed by the neuron

81
Q

Are NTs affected by disease or drugs?

A

Yes
Can cause different adverse effects on the body
Dopamine deficiency is associated with parkinsons
Acetylcholine deficiency associated with alzheimers

82
Q

What are excitatory NTs?

A

These neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron
They increase the likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential
Major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine

83
Q

Are excitatory NTs only released for a short time?

A

Yes, just for fast responses

84
Q

What are inhibitory NTs?

A

These neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron
They decrease the likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential
Major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin and GABA

85
Q

Can some transmitters have both excitatory and inhibitory effects?

A

Yes, such as acetylcholine and dopamine
Depends on the type of receptors that are present

86
Q

What is the function of acetylcholine?

A

Voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)

87
Q

What is the function of norepinephrine?

A

Wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway

88
Q

What is the function of dopamine?

A

Voluntary movement and motivation, “wanting”, pleasure, associated with addiction and love

89
Q

What is the function of serotonin?

A

Memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)

90
Q

What is the function of GABA?

A

Inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

91
Q

What is the function of glycine?

A

Spinal reflexes and motor behavior

92
Q

What is the function of glutamate?

A

Excitatory stimulation

93
Q

What is a neuromodulator?

A

A substance (not a NT) released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities

94
Q

Do neuromodulators produce a more diffuse response?

A

Yes
And they are released throughout the central nervous system

95
Q

Do neuromodulators play a role in sensory transmission?

A

Yes
Substance P modulates pain
Dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction

96
Q

What are local chemicals?

A

Chemicals that are secreted by organs
Work locally and are not released into the systemic circulation

96
Q

What are some examples of local chemicals?

A

Histamines and prostaglandins

97
Q

What are histamines?

A

Organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses - allergies

98
Q

What are prostaglandins?

A

A group of hormone-like lipids compounds made at the site of tissue damage or infection
They are involved in dealing with injury and illness, controlling processes such as inflammation, blood flow, formation of blood clots, and induction of labor

99
Q

Can adverse drugs reactions affect the auditory-vestibular system?

A

Yes
Can result in hearing loss, tinnitus, vestibular dysfunction, cognitive issues, and a combination of any

100
Q

Can audiologists provide insight on if an auditory-vestibular manifestation may be caused by a chemical?

A

Yes, often we spend more time with them and need to be able to recognize these ototoxic effects

101
Q

Do audiologists need to be able to prevent ototoxic effects as well as manage them if they have occurred?

A

Yes

102
Q

Can confusion and cognitive deficits occur due to a medication or drug?

A

Yes, this can affect their ability to accurately relay the drug timeline and also can affect test-retest reliability

103
Q

What are some case history questions we should be asking regarding medications?

A

What medications are you currently taking (dose and frequency)?
What condition is this medication being taken for?
How long have you been taking these medication(s)?

104
Q

Can over the counter and herbal medications also cause adverse auditory-vestibular reactions?

A

Yes

105
Q

Can many drugs also cause neurological side effects?

A

Yes, these may further complicate the clinical presentation and testing

AUDE 6120 - Pharmacology and Ototoxicity (8 decks)

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