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AUDE 6120 - Pharmacology and Ototoxicity > Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology > Flashcards

Basics of Biochemistry and Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is biochemistry?

A

The study of the molecular basis of life
Can explain processes within other life science disciplines

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2
Q

What is an ion?

A

An electrically charged atom or molecule formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons

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3
Q

Does each ring of a atom have a max number of electrons it can hold?

A

Yes
The first (inner) ring can only hold 2 electrons
The second ring can hold 8
The third ring can hold 18
The fourth ring can hold 32

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4
Q

What results if an atomic shell has lost electrons?

A

There will be more protons than electrons giving the ion a positive charge
Cation

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5
Q

What results if electrons are added to a shell?

A

There will be more electrons than protons and the ion will be negatively charged
Anion

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6
Q

Are cations and anions also called electrolytes?

A

Yes because they facilitate conductance of electrical current

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7
Q

What is a molecule?

A

The smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance
Made up of two or more atoms linked by a chemical bond

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8
Q

Does the electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions brings particles together to create an ionic compound?

A

Yes

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9
Q

What are radicals?

A

An uncharged atom (equal number of electrons and protons) but without a full outer shell

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10
Q

When are atoms most stable?

A

When their outermost electron shell is full

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11
Q

Are free radicals common?

A

Yes, free oxygen radicals are released from many processes of cell chemistry
Too many free radicals damage other molecules over time, may result in aging effects and cancers

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12
Q

What is a compound?

A

The combination of less than or equal to 2 elements with a chemical union
Can be converted into simpler forms by chemical means
Combine in a reproducible way

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13
Q

What is a mixture?

A

Consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds physically intermingled
Can be separated into its components by physical means
Often retains many of the properties of its compound

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14
Q

What is a non-uniform mixture?

A

Consists of two or more substances without fixed properties and without chemical bonding
Each substance keeps its original properties

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15
Q

What is the biological hierarchy?

A

Atomic
Molecular
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organism
Population
Ecosystem

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16
Q

What does chemistry deal with?

A

Identification of the substances of which matter is composed
The investigation of the properties of substances
The ways in which substances interact, combine, and change
The use of these processes to form new substances

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17
Q

What is the structural formula of a chemical compound?

A

A graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged

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18
Q

What is the protein structure of a chemical compound?

A

Biomolecular structure of a protein molecule

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19
Q

What is a chemical bond?

A

An attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances containing two or more atoms

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20
Q

How many elements are there?

A

Only about 118
Combine through chemical bonds to form billions of different substances

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21
Q

What are the different types of bonds?

A

Covalent and non-covalent bonds

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22
Q

What are some examples of non-covalent bonds?

A

Electrostatic bonds (ionic)
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrophobic attractions
van der Waals bonds

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23
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

Bonding between nonmetals
Sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms on different molecules
Molecules held together by the mutual affinity for their shared electrons
Covalent bonds are the force that hold proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids together

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24
Q

What is the strongest and most stable type of chemical bond?

A

Covalent bonds
The energy required to break these bonds is so great, often seen as irreversible

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25
Are covalent bonds typically involved in drug receptor interactions?
No
26
What is a hydrogen bond?
A special type of force between a positive hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur
27
Is a hydrogen bond weaker than covalent and ionic bonds?
Yes When atoms are close together, and several bonds are formed, it increases the strength of the bond
28
Is any molecule which has a hydrogen atom attached directly to an oxygen or nitrogen atom capable of hydrogen bonding?
Yes The hydrogen bonding makes the molecules "stickier", and more heat is necessary to separate them
29
What critical functions do hydrogen bonds perform?
Holding the two strands of the DNA double helix together Holding polypeptides together Helping enzymes bind to their substrate Helping antibodies bind to their antigen Helping transcription factors bind to each other Helping transcription factors bind to DNA
30
What is an ionic bond?
Bonding between metal and nonmetal Two ions of opposite charges Transfer of greater than or equal to one electron from a metal onto a nonmetal Negatively charges atoms are attracted to atoms with positive charge
31
Are ionic bonds stronger than hydrogen bonds?
Yes, but not as strogn as covalent bonds
32
Are ionic bonds the most effective force in attracting drug molecules to a receptor site?
Yes
33
What are van der waals bonds?
Molecules can attract each other at moderate distances and repel each other at close range These areas interact with transient areas of opposite charges on another molecule The bigger the atom or molecule, the bigger the force
34
What is the most common bond between atoms?
Van der waal bonds
35
Are van der waal bonds weaker than covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds?
Yes
36
When do van der waal forces operate?
Only when molecules pass very close to each other
37
What is oxidation and reduction?
Family of reactions that are concerned with transfer electrons Redox
38
What is oxidation?
Refers to the loss of electrons
39
What is reduction?
Refers to the gain of electrons
40
Is each reaction itself a half-reaction (either oxidation or reduction)?
Yes, two half-reactions form a whole reaction Redox reactions are a matched set
41
What are metal atoms characterized by?
Their tendency to be oxidized (or lose one or more electron) Forms a positively charged ion (cation)
42
What happens to the electrons that are lost by the metal atom?
They are gained by the non-metal (reduction) Forms a negatively charged ion (anion)
43
What is oxidative stress?
A disturbance (imbalance) between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS - free radicals and peroxides) produced by most body reactions which would allow it to easily repair the resulting damage Too much ROS
44
What is the ROS?
Free radicals and peroxides Biologic systems antioxidant defense
45
What do disturbances in the redox environment result in?
Excess ROS that can damage components of cells, including proteins, lipids, and DNA
46
Are oxidative stress and inflammation believed to go hand in hand?
Yes Can result in aging and neurodegeneration Diabetes, some cancers, atherosclerosis, parkinsons, and alzheimers
47
Can severe oxidative stress cause cell death by necrosis?
Yes
48
Can moderate oxidation trigger apoptosis?
Yes
49
What are some benefits to ROS?
Can be used by the immune system to attack and kill pathogens Can be used in cell signaling
50
How is overproduction of ROS prevented?
Natural antioxidants that occur in the body Antioxidants obtained from food
51
What is glutathione?
A naturally produced antioxidant found in plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria that protects cells from toxins like free radicals Has electron donating characteristic (oxidation)
52
Is glutathione an important protector within the auditory-vestibular system?
Yes
53
What is inflammation?
Part of a complex biological immune response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli (pathogens, physical trauma, chemical trauma) Necessary response that allows the body to destroy invading organisms and repair itself
54
In some disorders, can the inflammatory process become continuous and chronic?
Yes, although it is normally self-limiting Chronic inflammatory diseases Can cause lots of problems (damaging to the body)
55
Does chronic inflammation have active inflammation and tissue destruction?
Yes
56
Does the chronic inflammatory process induce oxidative stress?
Yes, that reduces the cellular antioxidant capacity Overproduced ROS react with cell membrane fatty acids and proteins impairing their function permanently Can lead to mutation and DNA damage
57
What are some risk factors for chronic inflammation?
Hypoxia (COPD?), obesity, hyperglycemia, and smoking
58
Can chronic inflammation be a predisposing factor for some cancers and accelerated aging?
Yes Also thought to play a role in age-related diseases
59
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?
Redness (vasodilation, increased blood flow) Swelling (edema) Heat (increased blood flow to area, fever brought about by chemical mediators of inflammation) Pain (distortion of tissues caused by edema) Loss of function (pain or severe swelling that prevents motion)
60
What are enzymes?
Catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the cells Organization of proteins into 3D structure results in an enzyme
61
What are the molecules at the beginning of the process in enzymatic reactions?
Substrates
62
What does the enzyme convert substrates into?
Different molecules (products)
63
Does the set of enzymes made in a cell determine which metabolic pathways will occur in that cell?
Yes
64
How are enzymes named?
End in -ase of the name of compounds that they act on Collagenase, lactase
65
Are enzymes and substrates specific shapes?
Yes If the enzyme and substrate don't match, a reaction may not occur Or the enzyme can slightly modify its shape to accommodate several substrates
66
Can enzyme activity be affect by other molecules?
Inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity Activators are molecules that increase enzyme activity
67
What other things can enzyme activity be affected by?
Temperature, chemical environment (e.g. pH), and the concentration of the substrate
68
What enzymes are used commercially?
Synthesis of antibiotics Laundry detergent (break down protein or fat on clothes) Meat tenderizers (powder that breaks down proteins)
69
What is a receptor?
A protein molecule that is embedded in the cell surface or in the cytoplasm Allows communication between the cell and the world outside the cell
70
Do receptors allow extracellular molecules (ligands) such as hormones, NT, toxins, or drugs to attach to it?
Yes, this results in a change in cell function
71
What kind of bonds are receptor-ligand bonds?
Ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der waal forces
72
Do some ligands just block receptors without resulting in any response?
Yes blocker drugs act like plugs and are often used to treat hypertension
73
What are hormones?
A chemical substance produced and released by one set of cells and transported in the bloodstream to another to effect physiological activity (such as growth or metabolism)
74
Is only a small amount of a hormone required to alter cell metabolism?
Yes They are very powerful
75
Are hormones also chemical messengers?
Yes, they transport signals from one cell to another
76
Are hormone reactions fast or slow?
Slower than those associated with NT
77
What are some examples of hormones?
Thyroid hormone, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone
78
What is a neurotransmitter?
A chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body
79
In most cases, when is a NT released from the axon?
After an action potential has reached the synapse
80
What is reuptake?
When the NT attaches to the receptor site and is reabsorbed by the neuron
81
Are NTs affected by disease or drugs?
Yes Can cause different adverse effects on the body Dopamine deficiency is associated with parkinsons Acetylcholine deficiency associated with alzheimers
82
What are excitatory NTs?
These neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron They increase the likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential Major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine
83
Are excitatory NTs only released for a short time?
Yes, just for fast responses
84
What are inhibitory NTs?
These neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron They decrease the likelihood that neurons will fire an action potential Major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin and GABA
85
Can some transmitters have both excitatory and inhibitory effects?
Yes, such as acetylcholine and dopamine Depends on the type of receptors that are present
86
What is the function of acetylcholine?
Voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles (via the sympathetic pathways)
87
What is the function of norepinephrine?
Wakefulness or arousal - via the sympathetic pathway
88
What is the function of dopamine?
Voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
89
What is the function of serotonin?
Memory, emotion, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation (association with depression?)
90
What is the function of GABA?
Inhibition of motor neurons; major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
91
What is the function of glycine?
Spinal reflexes and motor behavior
92
What is the function of glutamate?
Excitatory stimulation
93
What is a neuromodulator?
A substance (not a NT) released by a neuron and transmitting information to other neurons, thereby altering their activities
94
Do neuromodulators produce a more diffuse response?
Yes And they are released throughout the central nervous system
95
Do neuromodulators play a role in sensory transmission?
Yes Substance P modulates pain Dopamine and nicotine are involved in addiction
96
What are local chemicals?
Chemicals that are secreted by organs Work locally and are not released into the systemic circulation
96
What are some examples of local chemicals?
Histamines and prostaglandins
97
What are histamines?
Organic nitrogenous compound involved in local immune responses - allergies
98
What are prostaglandins?
A group of hormone-like lipids compounds made at the site of tissue damage or infection They are involved in dealing with injury and illness, controlling processes such as inflammation, blood flow, formation of blood clots, and induction of labor
99
Can adverse drugs reactions affect the auditory-vestibular system?
Yes Can result in hearing loss, tinnitus, vestibular dysfunction, cognitive issues, and a combination of any
100
Can audiologists provide insight on if an auditory-vestibular manifestation may be caused by a chemical?
Yes, often we spend more time with them and need to be able to recognize these ototoxic effects
101
Do audiologists need to be able to prevent ototoxic effects as well as manage them if they have occurred?
Yes
102
Can confusion and cognitive deficits occur due to a medication or drug?
Yes, this can affect their ability to accurately relay the drug timeline and also can affect test-retest reliability
103
What are some case history questions we should be asking regarding medications?
What medications are you currently taking (dose and frequency)? What condition is this medication being taken for? How long have you been taking these medication(s)?
104
Can over the counter and herbal medications also cause adverse auditory-vestibular reactions?
Yes
105
Can many drugs also cause neurological side effects?
Yes, these may further complicate the clinical presentation and testing

AUDE 6120 - Pharmacology and Ototoxicity (8 decks)

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