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Immunology and Microbiology in Health and Diseases > basic immunology > Flashcards

basic immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

immunology

A

the study of how the body defends itself against infection by micro-organisms (including bacteria/viruses/fungi/parasites)

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2
Q

What are the 2 branches of the immune system?

A

1) innate immunity

2) adaptive immunity

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3
Q

innate immunity

A

1) natural immune response

2) prevents/limits infection

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4
Q

adaptive immunity

A

1) acquired responsive

2) eradicates infection

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5
Q

Resistance in innate immunity

A

unaltered on repeated infection

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6
Q

Resistance in adaptive immunity

A

improved by repeated infection (memory)

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7
Q

Specificity in innate immunity

A

generally effective against all organisms

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8
Q

Specificity in adaptive immunity

A

specific for stimulating organism

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9
Q

Effector cells in innate immunity

A

1) phagocytes - macrophages + neutrophils
2) NK (natural killer) cells
3) mast cells
4) eosinophils

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10
Q

Effector cells in adaptive immunity

A

lymphocytes - T-cells + B-cells

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11
Q

Effector molecules in innate immunity

A

1) lysozyme
2) complement
3) interferons α/β/γ
4) defensins
5) lactoferrin

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12
Q

Effector molecules in adaptive immunity

A

1) antibodies

2) cytokines

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13
Q

What do surface epithelia do?

A

line + protect surfaces of the body in contact with the environment + provide a barrier to infection

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14
Q

How do epithelial cells work mechanically?

A

1) joined by tight junctions
2) flow of air/fluid across the epithelium
3) mucus production + movement by cilia

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15
Q

How do epithelial cells work chemically?

A

1) fatty acids + salty sweat in the skin
2) lysozyme in saliva/sweat/tears
3) low pH + pepsin in stomach
4) defensins in airway + GIT
4) acidity of urine/vaginal lactic acid

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16
Q

How do epithelial cells work microbiologically?

A

symbiotic bacteria compete for nutrients

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17
Q

What do phagocytes do?

A

engulf, digest, + destroy bacteria

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18
Q

macrophages

A

1) large mononuclear found in tissues

2) circulate in the blood as monocytes

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19
Q

neutrophils

A

1) multi-lobed nucleus
2) PMN (polymorphonuclear) cells
3) multiple granules in the cytoplasm
4) circulates in the blood
4) most abundant white blood cell

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20
Q

eosinophil

A

1) bi-lobed nucleus
2) prominent granules released on contact with parasites + ticks
3) mainly found in tissue
4) low level in circulation
5) toxic MBP (major basic protein)
6) ECP (eosinophil cationic protein)
7) EDN (eosinophil-derived protein)

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21
Q

What are the types of granulocytes?

A

1) neutrophils
2) eosinophils
3) basophils

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22
Q

mast cells

A

1) found in tissue alongside blood vessels + under epithelial layers
2) protect mucosal surfaces
3) activated mast cells release histamine in allergic reactions

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23
Q

NK (natural killer) cells

A

1) large granular cytotoxic lymphocyte
2) releases lytic granules to kill virus-infected cells + some tumour cells
3) found in blood
4) activated by IFN (interferons) α, β

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24
Q

What are the cells of the adaptive immune system?

A

lymphocytes

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25
Q

What are the 2 main types of lymphocytes?

A

1) B-cells

2) T-cells

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26
Q

What are the stages of immunity in the innate response?

A

1) adherence of bacteria to epithelium
2) penetration of epithelium (0-4h)
3) local infection of tissues - activation of macrophages
4) macrophages overwhelmed - recruitment of neutrophils (4-96h)

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27
Q

What are the stages of immunity in the adaptive response?

A

1) bacterial peptides (antigens) spread to lymph nodes (>96)
2) antigens trapped in lymph nodes activate T-cells + B-cells
3) specific antibodies + active T-cells mediate adaptive immunity

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28
Q

PAMPs

A

1) pathogen associated molecular patterns
2) sequences which are found on pathogens but not on human cells
3) tell the phagocyte that “non-self” is present + provide information on the type of pathogen present

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29
Q

Toll-like receptors

A

recognise PAMPs

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30
Q

How many Toll-Like receptors are found on human cells?

A

10

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31
Q

TLR-1

A

lipopeptide

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32
Q

TLR-2

A

1) lipopeptide

2) peptidoglycan

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33
Q

TLR-3

A

dsRNA

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34
Q

TLR-4

A

LPS

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35
Q

TLR-5

A

flagellin

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36
Q

TLR-6

A

1) lipopeptide

2) zymosan

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37
Q

TLR-7

A

single stranded RNA

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38
Q

TLR-8

A

single stranded RNA

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39
Q

TLR-9

A

unmethylated CpG DNA

40
Q

What TLRs are on the cell surface?

A

2, 4, 6

41
Q

What TLRs are intracellular?

A

3, 7, 8, 9

42
Q

opsonisation

A

immune process which uses opsonins to tag foreign pathogens for elimination by phagocytes

43
Q

What does opsonisation by C3b do?

A

1) alters the surface of a pathogen

2) facilitates phagocytosis

44
Q

What is phagocytosis like in unopsonised bacteria?

A

slow + inefficient

45
Q

What is phagocytosis like in opsonised bacteria?

A

fast + efficient

46
Q

How does C3 form C3b via the alternative pathway?

A

1) spontaneous hydrolysis of C3 results in low levels of C3b
2) C3b is stabilised by binding to microbial cell surfaces
3) factor B binds to C3b on the cell surface, where it is hydrolysed by factor D
4) C3b,Bb is a C3 convertase, and amplifies the cleavage of C3 to generate high levels of C3b

47
Q

Does C3b opsonise bacteria?

A

yes

48
Q

Does C3b opsonise host cells?

A

no

49
Q

What are the results of complement activation?

A

1) phagocytosis - enhancement of phagocytosis by coating with C3b
2) inflammation - increase of blood vessel permeability + chemotactic attraction of phagocytes
3) cytolysis = bursting of microbe due to inflow of extracellular fluid through channel formed by membrane attack complex C5-C9

50
Q

What are macrophages important for?

A

directing the early host response to infection

51
Q

What do activated macrophages produce?

A

cytokines

52
Q

Which cytokines do activated macrophages produce?

A

1) TNFa
2) IL-1
3) IL-8
4) IL-6
5) IL-12

52
Q

Which cytokines do activated macrophages produce?

A

1) TNFa
2) IL-1
3) IL-8
4) IL-6
5) IL-12

53
Q

What do IL-1 and TNFa do?

A

1) activate endothelial cells lining the blood vessels

2) increase the expression of adhesion molecules + neutrophil chemoattractants such as IL-8

54
Q

What does IL-8 do?

A

1) recruits neutrophils from the blood into tissues

2) enhances the binding of neutrophils to adhesion molecules

55
Q

What does IL-6 and IL-12 do?

A

1) activates lymphocytes

2) induces maturation of T-cells + increases antibody production by B-cells

56
Q

When does production of IL-1, TNFa + IL-8 occur?

A

early response (4-96h)

57
Q

When does production of IL-6 and IL-12 occur?

A

adaptive response

58
Q

What are the symptoms of inflammation?

A

1) rubor
2) calor
3) tumor
4) dolor

59
Q

rubor

A

redness

60
Q

calor

A

heat

61
Q

tumor

A

swelling

62
Q

dolor

A

pain

63
Q

rolling adhesion (step 1)

A

migration of neutrophils across the endothelium

64
Q

tight adhesion (step 2)

A

1) IL-8 receptor on PMN binds to IL-8 endothelium

2) adhesion molecule LFA-1 on PMN binds to ICAM-1 on endothelium

65
Q

diapedesis (step 3)

A

high levels of IL-8 in tissue attracts PMN

66
Q

migration (step 4)

A

PMN migrate to site of infection

67
Q

What are the steps of neutrophil recruitments through tissue?

A

1) leukocytes integrate multiple directional signals
2) leukocytes prioritise distant/novel chemoattractant source
3) end target-derived attractants are dominant over regulatory cell-derived agonists

68
Q

Where do B- and T- lymphocytes originate?

A

stem cell (bone marrow)

69
Q

What are the receptors on the surface of B-cells called?

A

immunoglobulins

70
Q

T-Cell receptor (TCR)

A

protein complexes found on the surface of T-cells

71
Q

Where do B-cells mature

A

bone marrow

72
Q

Where do T-cells mature?

A

thymus

73
Q

naïve T-cell

A

T cell that has matured and been released by the thymus but has not yet encountered its corresponding antigen

74
Q

naïve B-cell

A

B-cell that has matured and entered the bloodstream but has not yet been exposed to the APC specific to its B-cell receptor (BCR)

75
Q

What did Edward Jenner (1796) do?

A

1) first immunisation experiment
2) innoculation of a healthy individual with a mild form of disease (cowpox) protected against the lethal form of the disease (smallpox)

76
Q

What did Louis Pasteur (1880) do?

A

the demonstration that immunisation of cows with heat attenuated anthrax protected against the lethal effects of live anthrax

77
Q

What did Emil Adolf von Behring (1890) do?

A

demonstration of the transfer of immunity to diphtheria via specific antibodies in guinea pig serum

78
Q

clonal selection hypothesis

A

hypothesis which states that an individual lymphocyte (specifically, a B cell) expresses receptors specific to the distinct antigen, determined before the antibody ever encounters the antigen

79
Q

postulates of the clonal selection hypothesis

A

1) each lymphocyte bears a single type of receptor with a unique antigen specificity
2) interaction between a foreign antigen + a lymphocyte receptor capable of binding that antigen leads to lymphocyte activation
3) the differentiated cells derived from an activated lymphocyte bear receptors of identical specificity to those of the parent cell
4) lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for self antigens are deleted at an early stage of development and are therefore absent from the repertoire of mature lymphocytes

80
Q

How is the diversity of lymphocyte antigen receptors generated?

A

by rearrangement of gene segments coding for T-cell receptors on T-cells and surface immunoglobulins on B-cells

81
Q

What are the 3 important consequences of gene rearrangement?

A

1) enables a limited number of gene segments to generate a very diverse set of proteins
2) as each cell assembles a different set of gene segments to code for its antigen receptor, each cell expresses a unique receptor
3) as gene rearrangement involves an irreversible change in a cell’s DNA, all the daughters of that cell will inherit genes coding for the same receptor (a clone)

82
Q

What are the professional antigen presenting cells (APC)?

A

1) macrophage
2) dendritic cell
3) B-lymphocyte

83
Q

macrophage

A

specialised to internalise + present particulate antigens to T-cells

84
Q

dendritic cells

A

specialised to trap antigens in tissue (lung + skin) + migrate to the lymph nodes to present antigens to T-cells, sole function

85
Q

B-lymphocyte

A

cell-surface immunoglobulins allow B-cells to internalise large amounts of specific antigen + present it to T-cells

86
Q

MHC

A

major histocompatibility complex cells

87
Q

Where are MHC class I molecules found?

A

all nucleated body cells (except red blood cells)

88
Q

What do MHC class I bind?

A

virus-derived peptides

89
Q

What do MHC class II bind?

A

bacteria-derived peptides

89
Q

Where are MHC class II molecules found?

A

professional APC

90
Q

What does T-cell activation depend on?

A

recognition of antigen presented on an MHC molecule to TCRs

91
Q

What is co-stimulation important for

A

signalling for antigen presentation + T-cell activation

92
Q

What are the 3 most important functions of macrophages?

A

1) phagocytosis of opsonised bacteria at site of infection
2) regulation of neutrophil recruitment to sites of infection by cytokine synthesis
3) presentation of foreign antigens to naive T-cells in the lymph nodes

93
Q

What are the 3 most important functions of activated T-cells?

A

1) activation of macrophages by CD4+ helper T-cells (Th1 cells)
2) activation of B-cells by CD4+ helper T-cells (Th2 cells) to generate an antibody response
3) killing of virus infected cells by CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells

Immunology and Microbiology in Health and Diseases (2 decks)

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