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BIOL 1020 > Basic Cell Structure > Flashcards

Basic Cell Structure Flashcards

1
Q

what are macromolecules and the types of biological molecules

A

macromolecules are polymers made long chain of monomer subunits

Lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids

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2
Q

Types of lipids

A

Triacylglycerol - made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids through dehydration reaction,, used to store fat in the body
Phospholipids - used to form membranes in different part of the cell

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3
Q

What are lipids made of?

A

Fatty acid monomers

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4
Q

Structure of the plasma membrane

A

Consist of phospholipid bilayer with hydrophobic and hydrophillic region (amphipathic),, contain other macromolecules within the structure such carbs for recongization and protection, and protein to maintain the shape and allow selective passage

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5
Q

Why is there an amphipathic regions?

A

Due to the hydrophilic group consisting of phosphate, that is also negatively charged and polar

While hydrophobic is uncharged and non polar

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6
Q

What means by amphipathic molecules?

A

Contain both polar + charged (hydrophillic) and non polar + uncharged(hydrophobic)

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7
Q

What is fluid mosaic model

A

Structure of cell membrane as a flexible structyre made of proteins and lipids

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8
Q

why is it called fluid moisaic model

A

due to the fluidity from the amphipathic bilayer and the mosaic from the proteins embedding in the membrane

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9
Q

Functions of the cell membrane

A
  1. Encloses and protects the cell contents
    - Barrier between the inside and outside of the cell
    - Different chemical environment can exist on each side
    - Selectively permeable as they allow certain molecules through and block the movement of others
  2. Provides and support mechanical struture
    - Through cytoskeleton to maintain the shapw
    - extracellulear matrix
  3. defines and encloses the cell
    - membrane allows the cell to control the internal pressure and concentrentations of the intrecellular components
  4. Transport in and out of the cell
    - allow specific molecules acrpss the cell membranes in either direction
    - passive transport: through diffusion across the membrane from high concentration to low concentration (concentration gradient) without energy
    - active transport: molecules are pumped actoss the membrane against the concentration gradient (low concentration to high concentration), require energy
    - bulk transport:
    endocytosis,, molecules are taken in when the plasma membrane pinches inwards forming a vesicle (bubble)
    exocytosis,, molecules are secreted when vesicle fuses with the plasma mebrane
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10
Q

what are the transportation means of molecules in cell membrane

A
  1. active
  2. passive
  3. bulk - exocytosis
  4. bulk - endocytosis
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11
Q

differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A

eukaryotes:
- multicellular
- linear dna
- membrane- bound organelles
- contain nucleus
- mitosis

prokaryotes:
- unicellualr
-circular dna
- lacking membrane-bound organelles
- lack nucleus
- binary fission

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12
Q

similarities between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cell division
  • cytoplasm
  • ribosomes
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13
Q

components in eukaryotes and prokaryoes

A

^^

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14
Q

what is endosymbiosis

A

The process which prokaryotes cells adapted to become eukaryotic cells (mutuially ebneficial relationship)

the theory is asscociated witht he origin of eukaryotic cells and the evolution of organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts

host cell engulf free-living bacterium
mutualism
integration as it becomes more dependent on the host cell and specialized for its specific functions
evolve into specializedd organelles

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15
Q

unsaturated vs saturated hydrocrabon tails

A
  • unsaturated due to cis double bond taht prevents packing, thus increase membrane fluidity
  • saturated due to trans bond that keeps it pack together thus less flexible and more rigid

chloresterol (lipid) are embedded in between the layers that reduces membrane fluidity and hinders solidification ajd disrupt the regualr packing

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16
Q

what happen in diffusion with one solute vs two solute

what happen in osmosis

A

net diffusion until equilibrium on both sides

osmosis moves from high free water concentration to low free water concentration

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17
Q

what is tonicity

A

the ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water (pressure)

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18
Q

hypotonic vs isotonic vs hypertonic solution

A

hypo - too much water intake,, too much internal pressure
isotonic - balance pressure
hyper - too much water loss,, too much external pressure

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19
Q

how the active transport works

A

specific molecules bind to the shape in the carrier protein channel

energy is supplied by atp hydrolysis

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20
Q

role of carbs (polymer)

A
  • source of energy
  • structural support
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21
Q

role of proteins (polymer)

A
  • catalyse reactions
  • transport substances in and out of cell
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22
Q

role of nucleic acid (polymer)

A
  • contain dna information
  • function in gene expression
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23
Q

role of lipids (not polymer)

A
  • provide energy
  • making up cell membranes
  • act as hormones
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24
Q

chemical formula and structure

A

^^

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25
Q

what is the bond called for the formation lipid

A

ester bond (dehydration reaction) between fatty acid and glycerol

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26
Q

what are the 3 chemical properties different between tag and phospholipids

A
  • no of fattyu acids
  • ampipathic nature of phospholipids
  • hiogh energy density dur to higher fatty aicds thus higher potential energy released
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27
Q

How synthesis of polymers works

A

monomers form larger molecules (polymers) through polymerisation

linking monomers together via dehydration reactions (removal of water molecule)

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28
Q

how breakdown of polymers works

A

polymers are shortned by removing monomers from either end via hydrolysis (addition of water molecule)

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29
Q

what is the monomer and polymer for carbs called?

A

monomer: glucose
polymer: glycogen

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30
Q

structure pf glucose

A

^^
6 carbons

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31
Q

what is the bond called for carbs polymer

A

glycosidic bond

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32
Q

what is the glycosidic bond called for branched polymer

A

(1, 6) glycosidic bond

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33
Q

what is the glycosidic bond called for straight polymer in carbs

A

(1, 4) glycosidic bond

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34
Q

what is the monomer and polymer cakked in proteins

A

monomer: amino acids
polymer: polypeptides

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35
Q

what is the struture of proteins

A

^^
consist of carboxyl and amino groups and a carbon (backbone)
varied in R group (side chain)

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36
Q

what are the properties of r group

A
  • non polar
  • polar
  • charged (acidic)
  • charged (basic)
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37
Q

what are the bonds called in proteins

A

peptide bond

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38
Q

what are the levels of protein structure

A
  1. primary structure - amino acids are in linear chain
  2. secondary structure - linear chain is stabilized by hdrogen bonds to form either alpha-helices or beta-sheets
  3. tertiary struture - further stabalize to form 3d structure of proteins through covakent and non covalent bonds
  4. quartenary structure - two or more polypeptides
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39
Q

how enzyme varied in their specificity

A

determine by protein structure

vary in shape and active site

lock and key modle
induced fit model

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40
Q

how enzyme play a role in the process of cellualr energy

A

it catalyze process thus lowers the activation energy thus more likely to proceed

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41
Q

what is activation energy barrier

A

it prevetns the reactions tp proceed as soons as the reactants are present

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42
Q

Where are proteins found in bacterial cells

A

all metabolic reactions (ie. energy generation, protein synthesis, dna replication, synthesis of cell components) occur in the same space (ie. the cytoplasm or in cell membrane)

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43
Q

where are proteins found in the eukaryotic cells

A

proteins are translated at ribosomes embedded in the endoplasmic reticulum which will be further modify int eh golgi body

cytoplasm where there are free ribosomes for protein synthesis

ribosomes for protein syntehsis can also be found in mitochondria and chloroplast

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44
Q

what happpens in mitochondria

A

it is a site of respiration (process of converting nutrients into ATP) in both animal and plant cells

They have 2 membranes where one is smooth and another is folded, cristae
ribosomes are found in the matrix within the cristae compartment

They have their own dna and ribosomes to make their own proteins

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45
Q

what happens in chloroplasts

A

found only in plant cells
contain chlorophyll, site for photsynthesis

they have 3 membranes (outer, inner, and thylaakoid)

inner is where ribosomes are found

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46
Q

Use of sytoskeleton in the eukaryotic cell

A

made up of protein

essential to maintain cell shape, provide support, and cell movement

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47
Q

what are the three types of cytoskeleton structure

A

microtubules (rigid), microfilaments (semi flex), intermediate filaments (flexible)

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48
Q

what is 1 unit of carbohydrates called

A

monosaccharides, ie glucose

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49
Q

what are 2 unit of carbohydrates called and its bond called?

A

maltose with 1,4 glycosidic bond

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50
Q

what is many units of carbs called and examples and its type of bond called

A

polysaccharides, 1, 4 and 1,6 glycosidic bond, with starch, glycogen and cellulose

branching of the glucose with 1,6 glycosidic bond

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51
Q

why human can digest starch and glycogen and not glucosee?

A

starch and glycogen is in the alpha configuration and human have the specific enzyme for it as compares to in cellulose with beta configuration

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52
Q

what is the difference between alpha and beta configuration of carbs

A

alpha has its OH group below while beta has its OH group above

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53
Q

what is glycemic index

A

measure how easily food is digested and how quickly glucos enters the bloostream

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54
Q

what is glycogenprotein adn chitin

A
  • made up of carbohydrates and proteins,, used as an identifying markers on cell, found on the cell surface
  • a tough layer , resistant to enzyme degradation
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55
Q

why eating sushi containing amylopectin raise blood sugar more than amylose

A

amylopectin is highly branched thus be digested more quickly and raising the blood glucose level higher than amylose

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56
Q

what is teh enzyme that digest alpha configuration in carbs

A

alpha - amylase

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57
Q

why highly branched polysaccharides is digested more quickly than a linear chain

A
  • in a highly branched structure, there are more sites where the enzyme can initiate hydrolysis, allowinf for efficient digestion
  • higher surface are for enzyme to bind thus rapid breakdown
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58
Q

what are the bonds called in tag

A

ester linkage

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59
Q

difference in charge and polarity impact on the protein structyure

A

charge can have a significant impact on specific interactions within a protein, polarity often has a broader influence on the overall protein structure and stability

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60
Q

why polarity impact is broader in protein structure as compared to charge which is more localized?

A
  • charge can have a significant impact on specific interactions within a protein, polarity often has a broader influence on the overall protein structure and stability
  • charge can have a significant impact on specific interactions within a protein, polarity often has a broader influence on the overall protein structure and stability
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61
Q

influence of r group and backbone on the protein structure respectively

A

charge can have a significant impact on specific interactions within a protein, polarity often has a broader influence on the overall protein structure and stability

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62
Q

what is energy

A

energy is the capacity to do work

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63
Q

what is energy conversion in organism

A

process of transformin one form (mostly as potential energy) to another with vast majority loss as heat

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64
Q

what is energy conversion in organism

A

process of transformin one form (mostly as potential energy) to another with vast majority loss as heat

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65
Q

define gibbs free energy (G)

A

amount of energy in a system taht can be used to do work wile pressure and temperature are constant

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66
Q

what is the formula for change in G

A

ΔG = Gfinal - Ginitial

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67
Q

what is the formula for change in G

A

ΔG = Gfinal - Ginitial

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68
Q

what is metabolism

A

it is the sum of all chemical reactions (energy conversion) that occur within an organism to maintain life

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69
Q

what is the 2 process in metabolic reactions

A
  • catabolic reaction, neg ΔG,, break down bond, release energy
  • anabolic reaction, pos ΔG,, synthesize bond, consume energy
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70
Q

what is formula for meatbolism

A

metabolism = catabolic + anabolic reactions

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71
Q

what is neg chnage ΔG called

A

exergonic reaction

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72
Q

whta is pos chaneg ΔG called

A

endergonic reaction

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73
Q

what is the groah for exogornic and endogornic reactions?

A

^^

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74
Q

what is the benefit of activation energy barrier

A
  • control of reaction rate
  • selective reactions
  • energy efficiency
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75
Q

min 3 difference in endergonic and exergonic (terms: disorder [n why?], total energy in system and spontaneous)

A

exergonic: increase disorder (entropy), decrease total energy, spontaneous

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76
Q

use of atp in cellullar energy

A

it helps store energy

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77
Q

use of adp

A

intermediate for enrgy transfer

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78
Q

how energy is stored in atp

A

chemical energy, from food/nutrients breakdown, is stored in the bonds between 3 phosphate groups

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79
Q

the reaction in ATP synthesis and hydrolysis (term: exergonic, endogornic)

A

atp –> adp: atp hydrolysis, release energy to become adp
adp –> atp: atp synthesis, consume energy to become atp

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80
Q

what is the difference in phosphate group in atp and adp

A

atp: 3,, adp: 2

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81
Q

how atp hydrolysis ar ebale to release energy (term: expense, release)

A

cost of energy to break the bond is investment to break the tension between the negatuvely charges phosphate groups, which will release high potential energy from atp to adp

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82
Q

what is coupled reaction

A

cell reactions require exergonic that release engy to provide energy for endegornic taht consume energy

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83
Q

why and how couple reactions need to control energy loss

A

highly controlled to manage the amount of energy released through release in small steps and minimise any wated energy, throughrelying on intermediate electron shuttle carriers to accept some of these electrons and protons, as these are need for electron transport chain in atp synthesis

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84
Q

what are the electron shuttle carriers

A

(reduced form)
- nadh
- fadh2

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85
Q

how electron carrier plays a part in atp syntehsis

A

atp = nadh +fadh (as both can release elctrons for atp synthesis)

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86
Q

formula of hydrgen ion concentration (H+), a proton, referring to pH

A

pH = -log[h+]

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87
Q

why h+ cannot freely diffuse across membrane

A

charged ion, thus need channel for transfer as it is The lipid bilayer is primarily composed of hydrophobic fatty acid tails, which create a barrier to the passage of hydrophilic substances like ions. While H+ ions are small, they still have a strong affinity for water due to their high charge density

Thus amphipathic layer repels the charges

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88
Q

what is cellular repiration

A

process that breaks down organic molecules to produce energy in the form of ATP

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89
Q

what are the 3 process in celular respiration

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. pyruvate oxidation and citric cyle (produce mostly nadh and little atp)
  3. oxidative phosphorylation (produces lot of atp)
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90
Q

what happen in glycolysis

A
  • occur in cytoplasm
  • glucose –> 2 molecules of pyruvate
  • produce 2 NADH and 2 ATP
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91
Q

what happen in pyruvate oxidation

A
  • occur in the mitochondrion
  • pyruvate –> acetyl-CoA _ CO2
  • 1 NADH
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92
Q

whta happen in citric acid cycle

A
  • occur in mitchondrial matrix
  • acetyl-CoA –> CO2
  • produce 2 FADH2, 1 ATP, 6 NADH
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93
Q

what happen in oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • produces 26 - 28 atp
  1. electron transport chain (exegornic)
    - occur in the inner mitochondrial membrane
    - nadh and fadh2 donate their high energy electrins to the electron transport chain
    - as electrons move through the etc, they release energy which is used to pump protons (H+) across the membran, creating proton gradient

2.chemiosis (endegornic)
- the proton gradeint generated by the etc drives atp synthesis as proton flow back into the mitochondrial matrix due to the need for H+ ion/proton equilibrium

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94
Q

what happen in oxidative phosphorylation

A
  1. electron transport chain
    - nadh and fadh2 donate their high energy electrins to the electron transport chain
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95
Q

role of oxygen in etc

A

all the release electrons to drive the protein complex will be transferred to the oxygen at the end of the chain to become water

this reduce buils up of electrons which otherwise will cause inability to regeneare NAD+ and FAD as it cannot go back to its reduce form for the etc

help maintain proton gradient

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96
Q

what is the maximum atp per glucose?

A

30 to 32

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97
Q

reaction of cellular respiration

A

oxygen + glucose –> water + energy + co2

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98
Q

what are the ratio of oxygen to glucose for cellular respi

A

1 molecule of glucose to 6 molecules of O2

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99
Q

why atp is a nucleotide

A

consist of adenine. robose and 3 phosphate grp

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100
Q

how much protons require for a atp molecule

A

3

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101
Q

What are the 3 formula in determining conc and dilutions

A

1.
Mole = 6 x 10^23 molecules
Molecular weight ( MW) = grams / mole of compound
Number of moles = weight (in grams) / molecular weight

  1. Concentration (molarity, M) = no of moles/ vol
  2. Conc1 x vol1 = conc2 x vol2
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102
Q

What is bond called between phosphate grpup

A

Phosphoanhydride bond

103
Q

How proton gradient is used for atp synthesis

A

Through passive means, it flows throught he atp synthase, a protein channel, which uses the potential energy release to make 1 atp

104
Q

How to check h+ gradient?

A

By checking pH

105
Q

What is the cell division in prokaryotes called

A

Binary fission

106
Q

What is the cell divison in eukaryotes called

A

Mitosis and meiosis

107
Q

Which direction does rna polymerase moves on the template strand and direction of making the mRNA

A

3 to 5

mRNA from 5 to 3

108
Q

What direction does the DNA polymerase reads the mRNA to make new DNA strand

A

3 to 5

109
Q

Where dna replication occurs

A

Replication fork

110
Q

What is the orientation feature of dna strand

A

Anti parallel

111
Q

What is the orientation feature of dna strand

A

Anti parallel

112
Q

What are the 4 molecules that helps replication fork

A
  1. Helicase
    - unwinds the dna double helix but increases coiling (at the open space) ahead of the replication fork
  2. Topoisomerase
    - relieve tension and supercoiling that occur ahead of the replication fork as dna unwind (at the close space after the open space)
  3. Single strand binding protein
    - stabalise the unwound strands, preventing them from reannealing and degradation
  4. Dna primase
    - polymerase to synthesize short rna primer
113
Q

What goes on in leading strand synthesis

A
  1. Dna primase synthesize short rna primer
  2. Dna polymerase iii extend rna primer
  3. Rna primer is removed by rna polymerase i and replaced with dna
114
Q

What goses on in lagging strand synthesis

A
  1. Rna primer is repeatedly made, thus lots pf dna fragements knwon as okazaki fragments
  2. Dna pol iii add nucleotides to a primer and detaches when reach the next primer, starting with further from replucation fork
  3. Dna pol 1 replaces rna with dna
  4. Dna ligase joins the olazaki fragemnts to make a continous dna strand
115
Q

Term when dna condense and packaged

A

Chromosome

116
Q

Difference between a unduplicated chromosomes and a duplicated chromosome

A

Unduplicated: has 2 chromosome arms connected at the centromere
Duplicated: has 2 duplicated sister chromatids, thus double the dna

117
Q

Why eukaryotic cell cycle is impt

A

It is important for the growth, development and reproduction of eukaryotes organisms

As the cycle starts, all other activities are put on hold

118
Q

What does eukaryotic cell cycle consist of

A
  1. Mitotic (shorter period)
    - mitosis , divison of nucleus
    - cytokinesis, division of cytoplasm
  2. Interphase (longer period)
    - gap 1, normal cell metabolism, grow in size and synthesize the necessary proteins
    - s, dna replication
    - gap 2, preparation for cell division, chexkibg for errors
119
Q

What happen in interphase g2 before mitosis

A

Dna is duplicated

Still in chromatin form

120
Q

What are the steps in mitosis

A

Prophase
Prometophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

121
Q

What are the steps in mitosis

A

Prophase
Prometophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

122
Q

What happen in prophase

A

Dna condense to form chromatin

Centrosome divides aloong with microtubules to form mitotic spindle

123
Q

What happen in prophase

A

Dna condense to form chromatin

Centrosome divides aloong with microtubules to form mitotic spindle

124
Q

What happen in prometaphase

A

Micrptubules bind to the kintochores
Chromosomes anchored to the mitotic spindle

Nuclear membrane degrades

Centrosome moves to opposite poles of cells

125
Q

What happen in metaphase

A

The mitotic spindle moves the chromosomes to the middle of the cell

126
Q

What happen in metaphase

A

The mitotic spindle moves the chromosomes to the middle of the cell

127
Q

What happen in anaphase

A

The micrptubules pull the sister chromatis apart to opposite end of the cells

128
Q

What happen in telophase

A

Two sets of chromosomes are seperated

Cells split into two forming cleavage furrow

Nuclear envelope start to form

129
Q

What happen in cytokinesis

A

With the formation of the cleavage furrow, the pinching action seperates cytoplasm into two seperate cells and deepens, pinching the cell membrane inwards , sperating into two deaughtwr cells

130
Q

How different type of cell and function varies in need of cell cyle

A
  1. Cell that never divide,, specialized , stuck at gap 0
  2. Normally do not,, till induced to do so like skin cells
  3. Normally do,, tissue stem cells
131
Q

How different type of cell and function varies in need of cell cyle

A
  1. Cell that never divide,, specialized , stuck at gap 0
  2. Normally do not,, till induced to do so like skin cells
  3. Normally do,, tissue stem cells
132
Q

What happen in cell cyle control system

A

G1 checkpoint: dpes the cell need to reproduce agn
G2 cehcpoint: is dna damaged in s phas
M checkpoint: are chromosome attached to spindle

133
Q

How uncontrolled cell division affect cell cycle control and defects (term: actively promoting, inhibiting)

A

Genes actively promoting cell divison (proto oncogens) are not turm of the right time, it become oncogens and lead to cancer

Gene inhibit cell divison (tumor supressor gene) stop working will lead to cancer

134
Q

What are the 3 ways proto oncogens become oncogenz

A
  1. Translocation
  2. Gene amplication
  3. Point mutation
135
Q

What happen in translocation to become oncogens

A

When segement of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome,, this leads to activation of oncogens if the translocated segement containes a proto oncogens and under the control of highly active promoter region

136
Q

What happen in gene amplication to cause oncogens

A

Duplication of specific region of dna within a chromosome, resulting in increase of no of copies of a particular gene, which to activation of oncogens by causing their overexpression of gene

137
Q

What happen in point mutation to cause oncogens

A
  1. Within a control element
    - Control elements, such as promoters, enhancers, and silencers, are regions of DNA that regulate the expression of genes by controlling the initiation of transcription or the rate of transcription.
    - A point mutation within a control element can affect the binding of transcription factors or other regulatory proteins to that element. This can alter the efficiency or specificity of transcriptional regulation.
    - For example, a point mutation within a promoter region might create or disrupt a binding site for a transcription factor, leading to either increased or decreased expression of the associated gene.
  2. Within a gene
    - affect the sequence of amino acids, altering protein structure n function
    - missense mutation, nonsense mutation, or a frameshit mutation,, leading to a completely different amino acid sequence
    - this can cause proein that are completely active thus uncontrolled reactions or mutated protein that are degradation resistant (inhibit) causing oncogens to be activated
138
Q

What are the central digma of biology

A

Dna (contain information) transcripted to rna (written in nucleotides) translated to proteins (genetic info)

139
Q

What dna stand for

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

140
Q

What rna stand for

A

Ribonucleic acid

141
Q

What are 3 main groups in nucleic acid structure

A

Backbone: Phosphate sugar
Determine info coded: nitrogenois base

142
Q

What is the base pairing rule

A

C = G
A= T / U

143
Q

What are the nitrogwnous bases

A

Adenine thymine
Guanine
Cytosine

Urcail only in rna

144
Q

Why gc bond are stronher than at

A

AT has 2 hydrogen bond
CG has 3 hydrogen bond

145
Q

Diff between dna and rna structure

A

Dna has 5 c and 1 oh group
Rna has 5 c and 2 oh group

146
Q

What is the bond between nucleic acids called

A

Phosphodiester bond

147
Q

What carbon in sugar does the phosphate group connects to

A

3 and 5 of sugar of adjacent nucleotides

148
Q

What is the structure strand of dna

A

Double helix

149
Q

What is the structure strand of dna

A

Double helix

150
Q

What is the point where replication begins called

A

Origin of replication

151
Q

How origin of replication are decided

A

By the initiator protein where these sequences have exhibit specific structural features

152
Q

Why is impt for origin or replication to occur at the same place frequently

A

Accurate transmission of genetic information from one generation to another

153
Q

Why dna strand is seperated

A

To allow enzyme or polymearse to come through

154
Q

How dna strand is seperated

A

Helicase

155
Q

Is it endo or exo overall process in repkucating new strand on the template strand

A

Endo as they need net input energy to procees

156
Q

Diff between purine and pyrimides

A

Purine is adenine and guanine

Pyrimides is cytonse uracil and thymine

157
Q

What is the difference between incorparated and not been nucleotide into dna

A

B4 incorporation, nucleotides has 3 phosphate group

Aft incorporation, each nucleotide has one phospahte grp attached

158
Q

Importance of molecular comtrol of the cell cycle

A

To ensure accurate replication and division of cells

159
Q

Key components for molecular control of the cell cycle

A
  1. Cyclin
  2. Cyclin dependent kinase
  3. Maturarion promoting factor
160
Q

Process in molecular control of cell cyle

A
  1. Cyclin production start in s phase
  2. Accumulates until g2 phase
  3. Bond with cdk to form mpf
  4. Mpf actiavtes proteins that drive mitotic events,,, passes g2 event
  5. Mpf is degraded, and cylin is recycled
161
Q

What happen if there is failure in the cell cyle

A

Cyclin, cdk will be inhibited by the cell cycle checkpoints

162
Q

Why is it importnat cdk is not active unles bounded

A

Allow cell to conserve energy

163
Q

Differenent levels of cyclin, cdk, mpf throught the whole cell cyle

A

Cyclin : Increasing till every m phase
Cdk : constant
Mpf : highest only at m phase

164
Q

What happen in gap 0 phase

A

Have not pass gap 1
Are non dividing cells
Represent the majority of cells in your body

165
Q

What is the direction of transcription and what durection does rna is being made

A

Driection of transcriptiom: 5 to 3

3 to 5

166
Q

Why is there a need for pre mRNA in eukaryotes

A

To go through rna splicing to remove non coding sequences

167
Q

Introns vs exons

A

Introns are the non coding bits
Exons are the coding bits

168
Q

What is alternative splicing

A

More than one mRNA can be made from the same gene (chain of dna) but with differen proteins included

169
Q

What is polymerase ii

A

Its is an enzyme used to transcript mRNA

170
Q

How many nucleotides are in one codon/amino acid

A

3

171
Q

What is gene

A

Its a basic unit of inheritance with instruction for a trait

172
Q

What is trait

A

A heritable physical and physiological characteristic

173
Q

What is genotype

A

Its contains the genetic information,, contains 2 alleles

174
Q

What is phenotype

A

Set of observable physical traits

175
Q

Relation of alleles to locus

A

Two alleles of one genetic information (eg color of flower) is in the same locus (position) on homologous chromosome

176
Q

Allele in Homozygous vs heterozygous

A

Homo: identical
Hetero: different

177
Q

How gene related to the observable traits

A

Gene code for gene that are responsible for the characteristic of trait

178
Q

Molecular anatomy of a gene

A

Coding and control (promtoer) region

179
Q

How dna is compacted

A

Wrapping dna around a protein called hostoned –> chromatin –> further compacted to chromosome

180
Q

What are the type of histones

A

H1 h2a h2b h3 h4

181
Q

Characteristic of hostones and why

A

They are basic and positivelu charged to associate with the negatively charged dna

182
Q

Type of chromatin

A

Euchromatin, relaxed,,, genes likely to be found here
Heterochromatin, compact

183
Q

Type of chromatin

A

Euchromatin, relaxed,,, genes likely to be found here
Heterochromatin, compact

184
Q

How many chromosomes are there in human genome

A

22 autosomal chromosome
2 unpaired sex chromosome, X and Y

185
Q

What is virus

A

There are oligatory ( rely on host mechanism) and intreacellular (infect host cells to reproduce), whose genetic material is surrounded by protein capsid

186
Q

What are the stage of virus life cycle

A
  1. Attachement
    - to the surface by inceration with cell receptors
  2. Penetration
    - virus goes into tbe cytoplasm through endocytosis
  3. Uncoating
    - viral capsid is removed, releasing nucleic acid
  4. Transcription or translation
    - mRNA are produced to make more protwins
  5. Genome replication
    - more copies of virus genome to make more virus particles
  6. Assembly
    - amssembly of protein capsid
  7. Release
    - by cell lysis (membrane breaks dowm) or budding (exocytosis)
187
Q

What are the means of viral replication

A
  1. Lytic cyle
    - host cell will die
  2. Lysogenic cycle
    - incorporating the viral genome to host cell genome
188
Q

What are the replication mechanism in virus (contradicting the central dogma)

A
  1. Rna dependent rna polymerase
    - dna to positive rna to protein
    - some positive rna is converted to negatuve rna to make more rna
  2. Reverse transcriptase (in retroviruses)
    - dna to rna to protein
    - rna is used to make dna
189
Q

Difference between positve rna and negv rna

A

Positive can be immediately transltaed

Negat cannot but good for evading host immune response as they are not directly infectious

190
Q

Where does gene expression occur in bacteria

A

Since there are no nucleus,, transcription and translation occue in the same place in the cytoplasm

191
Q

How bacteria respond to environmental change

A

By regulating their gene expression

192
Q

What structure of a typical operon

A
  1. Promoter region
    - promoter,,, rna polymerase sequenced the specific dna sequence for it to bind and initiate transcriptiom
    - operator,,, turn gene on or off, intefering with rna polyemerase activity
  2. Coding region
    - multiple gene
193
Q

Repressible vs induced operon

A
194
Q

What happen in repressible operon process

A
195
Q

Trp operon vs lac operon

A

Trp operon : prokaryotes, bact
Lac operon : eukaryotes

196
Q

7 steps in gene regulation in eukaryotes

A
  1. Chromatin remodeling
  2. Transcriptional control
  3. Rna processing
  4. Rna localisation
  5. Rna stability and degradation
  6. Translational control
  7. Protein folding
197
Q

Why need enhancers in gwne regualrion

A

Enhancers increase the transcription of gene located at a distance from them on the same chromosome

They allow increase or decrease rate of transcription

198
Q

What is homeotic mutation

A

One body part in switch with another body part

199
Q

Pre vs post transcriptional control

A

Pre:
1. Chromatin remodelling
2. Histones
3. Transcription factor binding

Post:
1. Splicing and cappinh
2.

200
Q

What happen in translational gene regualtion

A

Controls the rate of protwin synthesis

Control the ribosome bind to mRNA,, ^^^^

201
Q

Steps in polymerase chain reaction

A
  1. Denaturation
  2. annealing, attach dna primers
  3. Extension , dna polymerase (taq polymerase)
202
Q

Cohesive (blunt) vs sticky ends

A

Blunt has no overhangs thus lower efficiency of ligation

Sticky ends are often preferred for dna cloning and recombinat due tot the their ability to facitility specific and directional ligation of dna fragemnrs

203
Q

Factors affecting rate of dna migration through agrose gel

A

Molecular size and shape of the
dna as larger molecules move slowly due to gretaer drah

Agarose concentration as more conc, the fragment move slower

204
Q

How dna move through agrpse gel

A

As dna negatuvely charged move towards positively charge

205
Q

What is the term called for the use of size markers for dna length

A

Dna ladder

206
Q

How many chromosomes are in gametes and somatic cells in hunan

A

Gametes have 23 chromosomes (n)

Somatic have 46 chromoseome (2n)

207
Q

Sexual reproduction of euakryotes through wat process

A

Meiosus to generate haploid cells (gametes) to produce diplois zygote

Zygote then go through mitosis to become multicellular organism

208
Q

What is meiosis

A

It produces haploid gamete, sperm or egg cells

It goes through s phase for dna replicatio then goes thru 2 cell divisions which are for:
1. Reduxtion in division
2. Seperation of chromatids

209
Q

What happen in first divison of meiosis

A

Seperating homologous chromosome

n = 23

210
Q

What happen in second division of meiosis

A

Seperate the sister chromatids

Result in 4 haploid cells

n = 23

211
Q

Does meiosis go through interphase

A

Yes

212
Q

How does meiosis increase genetic variation

A

By segregation and independenr assortment, homologous assortment contain same gene but diff allele variant at each locus

Through interphase in metaphase,, there can be crossover/recombination (exchnge of genetic information)

213
Q

Crossing over increases new combinations of alleles on a chromosome. True or false

A

True

214
Q

Genetic variation results from:

A
  • mutation,,, causing new allele
  • independent assortment of homologous chromosome pairs,,, different combinations of parental combinations in diff gametes
  • recombination (crossing over),,, new combinations pf allelels on chromosomes
  • fusion of gametes
215
Q

What if meiosis goes wrong

A
  • non disjuction in meiosis 1 or meisois 2

N + 1 / N - 1

216
Q

Impact of error in mitosis vs meiosis

A

In mitosis, errors primarily affect somatic (body) cells, which undergo division for growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues. Errors in mitosis can lead to chromosomal abnormalities, genetic mutations, cell death, tumor formation, and developmental abnormalities in the affected tissue or organ.

In contrast, meiosis specifically produces gametes (sperm and egg cells) for sexual reproduction. Errors in meiosis can result in gametes with chromosomal abnormalities, such as aneuploidy (abnormal chromosome number), which can lead to developmental disorders, birth defects, or conditions like Down syndrome in offspring. Additionally, errors in meiosis can impact fertility by affecting the production of functional gametes.

217
Q

Mutations can be induced or spontaneous. Tru or false

A

Tru

218
Q

Loss of function mutation definition

A

Deletion of gene sequence

219
Q

Gain of function mutation

A

Amplify the expression of genes

220
Q

How dna is transferred between bacteria

A
  1. Confugation,,,, direct cell to cell contact
  2. Transformation,,,, taken up plasmid
  3. Transductiom,,,, by bacterial virus
221
Q

Hydrogen bonds from dna allows easilt to be broken and reform with changes in temeprature in pcr. Tru or false

A

Tri

222
Q

Mono vs di hybrid cross

A

Mono: cross between two individuals that differ in one trait governed by one gene with two different alleles
Di: cross between two individuals taht differ in 2 traits governed by 2 different genes, each gene having 2 different allele

223
Q

Diff between segregation and indpendent assortment

A

Segregation occur in meiosis ii seperating the allele of a single gene

Independent assortment occur in mesiosis i seperating the chromosome to either the maternal or paternal

224
Q

What is co dominance

A

Both shows without blending

225
Q

What is epistatis

A

The expression of gene mask or modify another expression of gene

226
Q

What is pleiotropy

A

Songle gene has multiple traits

227
Q

What us polyploidy and aneuploid

A

Poly: too little or many sets of chrpmosomes
Aneu: too little or many number of chromosome

228
Q

What id assymetric inheritance and species epecific slection

A

Assymetirc: differentiating cell
Species specific: external or env factors affcet the selection

229
Q

Key aspects of natural selection

A

Acts on population

Only affect heritable traits

Varies by environmental context

230
Q

4 alteration on chromosome steucture

A
  1. Deletion
  2. Insertion
  3. Inversion (reverse a segment)
  4. Translocation (move segement from one chromosome to another)
231
Q

What are 2 ways that cause mutation in mRNA (not multiple of 3)

A

Point mutation and insertion and deleteion mutation

232
Q

What happen in point mutation

A
  1. Silent,,, no effect, amino acid is the same
  2. Missense,,, read wrongly, different amino acid
  3. Nonsense,,,, premature termination
233
Q

What happen in in insertion deleteion mutatiom

A
  1. Extra,,, 1 nucleotide pair added, cause nonsense
  2. Missense,,, 1 nucleotide pair removal, cause misense
  3. 3 nucleotide pair deletion,,, no framshift but removal of one amino acid
234
Q

Reduction in fitness is when there is decrease in amino acid (protein). True or fale

A

Tru

235
Q

Mutation is disadvantageous. Tru or false

A

Tru

236
Q

Whcih will cause greater impact loss of one bp or one amino acid

A

One bp,,,, it result in fram shift mutation which will impact alll of the following codon and amino acid

237
Q

Evolution = natural selection + mutation + genetic drift + gene flow

A

Yes

238
Q

What is genetic drift

A

Removal of alleles from a population over time due to chance,,, chnagibg the allele frequenxy,,,
Smaller population will face a greater genetic drift

239
Q

What happen in mutatiom

A

Addition of new allele in a population,,, large population has higher mutation rate due to more chances

240
Q

What is gene flow

A
  1. Immigration
  2. Emmigration
    Btwn the 2 population,, allele will stay similar
241
Q

Immigration add allele

A
242
Q

Mode of selection between frequenxy of indivuduals and phenotypes

A
  1. Directional selection
    - favour one extreme end of the phenotype
  2. Disruptive
    - favor two extreme nd of rhe phenotype and not the middle
  3. Stabalising sleection
    - favor only the middle phenotype
243
Q

What is qtl

A

Quantititave trait locus

244
Q

What is qtl used for

A

To identify region of the genom that are associated with variation un quantittaive traits

245
Q

What is snp

A

Single nucleotide polymorphism

Its is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide base at a specific position in the genome differs between indivisuals within a populatikn

246
Q

Coupling vs repulsion linkage

A

Cis same side

247
Q

What is lateral gene transfer

A

It is the transfer of genetic material between diff organisms, often unrelated species through mechanisms other than vertical inheritance

248
Q

What is nondisjunction

A

A pair of homologous chromosome failed to segregate at anaphase so that both chromosome of the pair pass to the same daughter cell

249
Q

Anything over 50 map units are unlinked. Tru or fals

A

True

250
Q

Tumor suppressor gene vs proto oncogens

A

Tumor suppressor inhibit cell growth and promote cell death

Proto oncogens support cell growth and division

251
Q

Tumor suppressor gene vs proto oncogens

A

Tumor suppressor inhibit cell growth and promote cell death

Proto oncogens support cell growth and division

252
Q

What is polymerase

A

Polymerase is an enzyme responsible for synthesizing long chains of polymers or nucleic acids, such as DNA or RNA, by catalyzing the bonding of nucleotides together. It plays a crucial role in processes like DNA replication and RNA transcription.

253
Q

Hardy weinbery principle

A

No mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, or gene flow

BIOL 1020 (1 decks)

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