Barrons-Psychology Flashcards
1
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dendrites
A
Part of neuron that recieves neurotransmitter messages
2
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axon
A
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body
3
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myelin sheath
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a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
4
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terminal buttons
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also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, also called synaptic knobs branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter
5
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
6
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synapse
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the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons
7
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action potential
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the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted
8
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lack of acetylcholine
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Alzheimer’s disease
9
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function of acetylcholine
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neuro transmitter motor movement
10
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function of dopamine
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motor movement and alertness
11
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lack of dopamine
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Parkinson’s disease
12
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overabundance of dopamine
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schizophrenia
13
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function of endorphins
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pain control; involved in addictions
14
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function of serotonin
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mood control
15
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lack of serotonin
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associated with clinical depression
16
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afferent neurons
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neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
17
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interneurons
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in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord
18
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efferent neurons
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neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body
19
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Central Nervous System
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consists of the brain and spinal cord; nerves encased in bonecompare: Peripheral Nervous System
20
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Peripheral Nervous System
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consists of nerves not encased in boneDivided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous systemcompare: Central Nervous System
21
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Somatic Nervous System
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controls voluntary muscle movementscompare: Autonomic Nervous System
22
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Autonomic Nervous System
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controls the automatic functions of our bodydivided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systemscompare: Somatic Nervous System
23
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemmobilizes our body to respond to stresscompare: Parasympathetic Nervous System
24
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemslowing body down after a stress responsecompare: Sympathetic Nervous System
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Phineas Gage
a railroad worker involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain
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lesioning
the removal or destruction of part of the brainexample: frontal lobotomy
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frontal lobotomy
type of lesioining that was used to treat mentally ill patiens
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
detects brain waves, used in sleep research
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Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain. Same function as CAT, except more sophistcated and no x-ray
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Functional MRI
combination of MRI and PET
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Portion Emission Tomography (PET)
measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using. Also the parts of the brain used.
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medulla
part of hindbraincontrols blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
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hindbrain
structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive. These include pons, cerebelum, and medulla
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pons
part of hindbrainconnects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, involved in the control of facial expressions
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cerebellum
part of hindbrainlooks like smaller version of brain stuck onto the underside of brain, coordinates HABITUAL muscle movements
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reticular formation
a netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attentionif it does not function, you will fall into a coma
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midbrain
coordinates simple movements with sensory information contains reticular formation. Ex: if you move your head to the left, the midbrain coordinates with your eyes to keep your eyes focused on the text.
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forebrain
controls thought and reasoncontains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus
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thalamus
part of forebrainlocated at top of brain stemreceives sensory signals from spinal cord and sends hem to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain
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hypothalamus
part of forebraincontrols several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system, which secretes chemicals
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limbic system
made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus deal with aspects of emotion and memory
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amygdala and hippocampus
hippocampus- arms surrounding the thalamus amygdala- structures near the end of each hippocampal arm involved in processing and perceiving emotion. The hippocampus is crucial for processing memory, Memory is not stored in the hippocampus
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fissures
wrinkles in the cerebral cortex
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contralateral control
each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
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brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each hemisphere
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corpus callosum
the nerve bundle that connects the two hempisheres; cut in split-brain patients
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split-brain patients
patients whose corpus callosums have been cut, operation pioneered by Sperry.
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association area
any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements. These parts are used for thought and humor.
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frontal lobes
part of the cerebral cortexresponsible for abstract thought and emotional controlcontains: Broca's area and motor cortex
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Broca's area
in the frontal loberesponsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech
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motor cortex
in the frontal lobesends signals to muscles, controlling voluntary movementsbottom of cortex controls top of body and vice versa
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parietal lobes
contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
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sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the bodybottom of sensory cortex receives sensations from top of body and vice versa
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occipital lobes
at the very back of the brainimpulses from the right half of each retina is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa
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temporal lobes
unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobescontains Wernicke's area
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Wernicke's area
located in temporal lobeinterprets both written and spoken speech
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brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
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adrenal glands
produce adrenaline, which causes rest of body to go into fight or flight mode
60
Thomas Bouchard
Studied twins found high correlation between IQ of twincs that were raised in different house holds. Therefore found that IQ is somewhat genetic and a bit environmental. One critism of this experiment in that since both twins are identical they could be treated the same by their environment, causing the same effective psychological environment. Therefore environment not genetics would have caused the high correlation in IQ
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Turner's syndrome
chromosonal abnormality only one X chromosome in the 23rd pair causes shortness, webbed necks
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Klinefelter's syndrome
extra X chromosomeminimal sexual development and personality traits like extreme introversion
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Down's syndrome
extra chromosome on the 21st pairrounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, different extents of mental retardation
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transduction
the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses
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Describe sensory adaption, sensory habituation, and ,cocktail-party phenomenon
Sensory adaption is the decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation. Like you feel cold when you first get into a pool, then you stop feeling so cold. Sensory habituation explains the cocktail-party phenomenon, since the sensory habituation says that sensation is due partially to how much we focus on it. So if you are talking with your friend at a party, and someone across the room says your name, you will focus on them. This is called the cocktail-party phenomenon
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cornea
a protective covering of the eye that initially takes in the light reflected by an object. Also the cornea helps to focus on light
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pupil
dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye. The muscle that controls the pupil is the iris
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lens. Process by which lens conducts its task
curved and flexible in order to focus the light through a called accommodation. Light is flipped upside down and inverted when it passes the lens.
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retina
a screen on the back of your eye, where the inverted light is reflected. The retina contains specialized neurons activated by different wave lenghts
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cones
cells activated by colorcompare: rods
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rods
cells that respond to black and whiteoutnumber cones 20:1compare: cones
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fovea
located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones
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ganglion cells
Ganglion cell's axons make up the optic nerve. If enough cones and rods are stimulated, then the next layer of bipolar cells, called ganglion cells send the neural impulse to a specific region in the thalamus called the lateral geniculate nucleus.
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lateral geniculate nucleus
a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve
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blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones
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optic chasm
the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain
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feature detectors
discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. Feature detectors are located in the visual cortex.
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trichromatic theory
there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrumdoes not explain afterimages and color blindness
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afterimage
an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased
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opponent-process theory
the theory that sensory receptors in the retina come in pairs. opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. If one receptor in a pair is stimulated, its counterpart is prohibited from firing. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. Explains colorblindness and afterimages. For afterimages, basically if you stare at red for a long time, you have fatigued this sensor, then when you look at a blank wall the opponent process (green) fires. For color blindness, opponent-process theory works, because of the whole idea that sensory receptors come in pairs, and dichromatic color blind people have difficulty seeing colors that are paired in accordance to the opponent-process theory. Therefore a color blind person would have difficulty sensing red and green or yellow and blue.
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amplitude
the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels. The more amplitude the louder the sound or the brighter the color.
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frequency
the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz
83
order of sound in your ear
ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> (3 bones known collectively as obssicles) hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail's shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve
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place theory
hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea. Some hair bends in response to high pitches others due to low pitches
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frequency theory
place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequencyhair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea
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conduction deafness
something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea
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nerve (sensorineural) deafness
when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise
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gate-control theory
when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt. Endorphins and other drugs such as opiates like morphine swing the gate shut.
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papillae
the bumps on your tongue that contain taste buds. Chemicals from food are absorbed by taste buds.
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olfactory bulb. Difference between smell and all other senses in terms of the brain?
Gathers information from olfactory nerves and sends the information to the limbic system instead of the thalamus like all other senses. The limbic system is composed of amygdala and hippocampus
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vestibular sense. How is it measured?
how our body is oriented in space. Three semicircular canals in the inner ear contain fluid that causes hair cells in the canal to move. These hair cells activate neurons.
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kinesthetic sense
the position and orientation of specific body parts, because receptors in muscles send information to the brain
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absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time. This 50% is to account for other stimulation that might impede or indvidual variation
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subliminal
stimuli below absolute threshold
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difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)
the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a changecomputed by Weber's law
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Weber's law
the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
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Weber's law for sight
constant for vision: 8%
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Weber's law for hearing
constant for hearing: 5%
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signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Signal detection criteria takes into account our response criteria
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response criteria (receiver operating characteristics)
how motivated people are to detect certain stimuli and expectations for what they want to perceive
101
What are false positives? Which theory explains false positive?
when we think we perceive a stimulus that is not there
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Whar are false negatives? Which theory explains false negatives
not perceiving a stimulus that is present
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top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Use schemata to produce perceptual set. compare: bottom-up processing
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schemata
mental representations of how we expect the world to be. Background information.
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perceptual set
a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way
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bottom-up processing vs top-down processing
Bottomup processing is slower but more accurate. Top down processing is faster but prone to more errors
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bottom-up processing (feature analysis)
we use only the features of the object itself to perceive itcompare: top-down processing
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figure-ground relationship
A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.
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constancy
the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance that are attributed to changes in the angle of your view or light shining on it. Types of constancy include size, shape, and brightness constancy
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stroboscopic effect
Pictures presented in a series will look like a movie
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autokinetic effect
When you stare at a light for too long, the light will appear to move.
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phi phenomenon
flashing lights will appear to be one moving light
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visual cliff experiment
created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth
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Monocular Cues
Not dependent on two eyes
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Binocular Cues
Depend on two eyes Binocular Disparity: Both eyes see objects with slightly different angles, brain gets both images. The closer the object becomes the more disparity. The farther the object is the less disparity between the images of the two eyes. Convergence: Eyes move closer to each other to keep focus as object gets closer to our face
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Muller-Lyer illusion
demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture and not innate. Example of cultural learning of perspective is the use of angles in the architecture of your environment.
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consciousness
level of awareness
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mere-exposure effect
old stimuli are preferred over new stimuli, because on some level the old stimuli are remembered and known, regardless of consciouss awareness of the old stimuli. The unconscious might recognize the stumuli
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priming
the activation, sometimes unconsciously of information, therefore predisposing you to a response
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blind sight
some blind people can respond to visual stimuli because on some level of consciousness is able to "see"
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conscious
the information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of
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nonconscious
The nonconscious controls your body processes such as heart rate and digestion.
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preconscious
information abut yourself or your environment that you are not currently thinking about, but could be
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subconscious
information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior like priming and mere-exposure. Information in your subconscious affects how you process information and includes implicit memories. The unconscious is a term used mostly by psychodynamic theorists to refer to troubling thoughts that we have actively pushed out of our conscious minds.
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unconscious
psychoanalyst idea-- some unacceptable events and feelings are repressed from conscious mind to unconsciousdifficult to prove
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circadian rhythm
a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms
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sleep onset
the stage between wakefulness and sleep. Our brain produces alpha waves when we are drowsy but awake. We might experience mild hallucinations (such as falling or rising) before actually falling asleep and entering stage 1
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alpha waves
relatively high-frequency, low amplitude waves produced while awake and in stages 1 and 2
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Theta Waves
While we are awake and in stages 1 and 2, our brains produce theta waves, which are relatively high-frequency, low-amplitude waves. However, the theta waves get progressively slower and higher in amplitude as we go from wakefulness and through stages 1 and
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sleep spindles? Which stage of sleep do most people spend time in the most
short bursts of rapid brain waves that start to appear in stage 2 sleep. People spend approximately 50 percent of their time asleep in stage 2. Approximately 25 percent is spent in REM, 20 percent in deep sleep (stages 3 and 4), and only about 5 percent in stage 1.
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delta sleep/slow-wave sleep
stages 3 and 4's other names due to the delta waves that exist during these stagesreplenishes the body's chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children and fortifying the immune system. we move into stages 3 and 4, which are sometimes called delta sleep (also called slow-wave sleep) because of the delta waves that exist during these stages. The slower the wave (slow waves are low-frequency waves), the deeper the sleep and less aware we are of our environment. A person in delta sleep is very difficult to wake up. If you are awakened out of delta sleep, you may be very disoriented and groggy. Delta sleep seems to be very important in replenishing the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children, and fortifying our immune system. A person deprived of delta sleep will be more susceptible to illness and will feel physically tired. Increasing exercise will increase the amount of time we spend in stages 3 and 4.
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rapid eye movement (REM)
As you go back through stage 3 and 2, right before stage 1 our brain produces a period of intese activity. The more stress we experience during the day, the more time we will spend in REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep interfers with memory. Dreams occur during REM sleep
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REM rebound
individuals deprived of REM sleep will experience more and longer periods of REM sleep the next time they are allowed to sleep normally
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Age's effect on Sleep
age affects the pattern. Babies not only spend more total time sleeping than we do (up to 18 hours), they also spend more time in REM sleep. As we age, our total need for sleep declines as does the amount of time we spend in REM sleep.
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insomnia
problems getting to sleep/staying asleep at nightaffects up to 10% of people
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treatment of insomnia
treated with changes of behavior:- reduction of caffeine/ other stimulants- exercise at appropriate times
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narcolepsy
periods of intense sleepiness and falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate timesaffects less than 0.001% of people
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treatment of narcolepsy
treated with medication and changing sleep patterns (naps at certain times of the day)
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sleep apnea
when a person stops breathing for short periods of time during the night- robs the person of deep sleep- causes attention and memory problems- Since these individuals do not remember waking up during the night, apnea frequently goes undiagnosed. Overweight men are at a higher risk for apnea. Apnea can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the person as he or she sleeps.
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night terrors
feelings of terror or dread usually affecting childrenoccurs during stage 4 sleep
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somnambulism
sleep walking usually occurring in children occurs during stage 4 sleep
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manifest content
The first part out of two of dreamsL: literal content of dreams compare: latent content
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latent content
the second part of dreams: the unconscious meaning of the manifest contentcompare: manifest content
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Freud's Thoughts on Sleep (f)
Freud thought that even during sleep, our ego protected us from the material in the unconscious mind (thus the term protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols. So showing up naked at school would represent a symbol in this type of analysis, perhaps of vulnerability or anxiety. This type of dream analysis is common. Check any bookstore, and you will find multiple dream interpretation books based on this theory. However, popularity does not imply validity. Researchers point out that this theory is difficult to validate or invalidate. How do we know which are the correct symbols to examine and what they mean? The validity of the theory cannot betested. Consequently, this analysis is mostly used in psychoanalytic therapy and in pop psychology rather than in research.
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protected sleep
ego protects us from unconscious by representing everything in symbols
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activation-synthesis theory
dreams are nothing more than the brain’s interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep
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information-processing theory
more stress causes more dreams about your stress, dream content relates to daily concerns. The brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams and the function of REM may be to integrate information processed during the day into our memories
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posthypnotic amnesia
people forget events that occurred during hypnosis
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posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion that a hypnotized person have a certain way after hypnosis
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role theory
hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness; hypnotized people are just filling out the "role" of a hypnotized person
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hypnotic suggestibility
some people are more easily hypnotized than othersricher fantasy life, follow directions well, and able to focus intensely on a single task for a long period of time
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state theory
theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
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dissociation theory
created by Ernest Hilgardhypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part stays tuned to reality, another part to the hypnotist. In an experiment investigating hypnotism and pain control, Hilgard asked hypnotized participants to put their arm in an ice water bath. Most of us would feel this intense cold as painful after a few seconds, but the hypnotized participants reported no pain. However, when Hilgard asked them to lift their index finger if any part of them felt the pain, most participants lifted their finger. This experiment demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer, a part or level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while another level obeys the hypnotist’s suggestions.
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Ernest Hilgard
dissociation theory
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psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness
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blood-brain barrier
thick walls surrounding the brain's blood vessels that protect the brain from harmful chemicals
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agonist
drugs that mimic neurotransmitters. psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through the blood-brain barrier. These molecules either mimic or block naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain. The drugs that mimic neurotransmitters are called agonists. These drugs fit in the receptor sites on a neuron that normally receive the neurotransmitter and function as that neurotransmitter normally would
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antagonists
drugs that block neurotransmitters. However, instead of acting like the neurotransmitter, they simply prevent the natural neurotransmitters from using that receptor site. Other drugs prevent natural neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed back into a neuron, creating an abundance of that neurotransmitter in the synapse. No matter what mechanism they use, drugs gradually alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug.
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tolerance
a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect compare: reverse tolerance. olerance will eventually cause withdrawal symptoms in users. Withdrawal symptoms vary from drug to drug. They range from the headache I might get if I do not consume any caffeine during the day to the dehydrating and potentially fatal night sweats (sweating profusely during sleep) a heroin addict experiences during withdrawal. Dependence on psychoactive drugs can be either psychological or physical or can be both. Persons psychologically dependent on a drug feel an intense desire for the drug because they are convinced they need it in order to perform or feel a certain way. Persons physically dependent on a substance have a tolerance for the drug, experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need the drug to avoid the withdrawal symptoms. Different researchers categorize psychoactive drugs in different ways, but four common categories are stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.
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reverse tolerance
the first dose lingers in the body and enhances the effect of the second dose although it may be smallercompare: tolerance
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depressants
drugs that slow down body processesexamples: alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs ex: Valium). lows down our reactions and judgment by slowing down brain processes. The inhibition of different brain regions causes behavioral changes. For example, when enough alcohol is ingested to affect the cerebellum, our motor coordination is dramatically affected, eventually making it difficult or impossible for the user to even stand. Because it is so widespread, more research has been done on alcohol than on any other psychoactive drug.
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effects of alcohol
slowed down reactions and judgment, impaired motor coordination
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stimulants
drugs that speed up body processes. including autonomic nervous system functions such as heart and respiration rate. This dramatic increase is accompanied by a sense of euphoria. The more-powerful stimulants, such as cocaine, produce an extreme euphoric rush that may make a user feel extremely self-confident and invincible. All stimulants produce tolerance, withdrawal effects, and other side effects (such as disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, and heart problems) to a greater or lesser degree that corresponds with the power of the drug.
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examples of stimulants
caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine
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side effects of stimulants
disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems
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hallucinogens/psychedelics
drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasiesstay in body for a long timeeffects are less predictable
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examples of hallucinogens/psychedelics
LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marajuana
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opiates
drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and reduce pain and elevate mood
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examples of opiates
morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine
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side effects of opiates
drowsiness, euphoria, physically addictive because they change brain chemistry quickly
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classical conditioning
people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old onecompare: operant conditioning
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unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
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conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
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conditioned response
an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus
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acquisition
the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
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delayed conditioning
ideal training - neutral stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, briefly overlaps.
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trace conditioning
the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
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simultaneous conditioning
neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus paired together at the same time.
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backward conditioning
least effective- occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus
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extinction
the process of unlearning a behavior
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spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
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generalization
transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus
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discriminate
distinguish between various stimuli
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John Watson and Rosalie Rayner's experiment
taught little boy Albert to fear a white rat
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aversive conditioning
conditioning to avoid an aversive stimulus
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higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.
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learned taste aversions
If you ingest an unusual food/drink and become nauseous, an aversion to that food/drink will develop (can be based on a single pairing, as opposed to repeated)
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salient
having a quality that thrusts itself into attention
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Garcia and Koelling's experiment
experiment showing how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others
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operant conditioning
type of learning based on the association of consequences with one's behaviorscompare: classical conditioning
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Edward Thorndike and his experiment
one of the first people to research operant conditioningPlaced cat in a puzzle box next to food; cat gradually became quicker at getting to the food
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law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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instrumental learning
what Throndike called his work because he believed consequences were instrumental in shaping future behaviors
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B.F. Skinner
created the term "operant conditioning"created Skinner box
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Skinner box
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response
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reinforcement
anything that makes a behavior more likelycompare: punishment
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positive reinforcement
the addition of something pleasant
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negative reinforcement
the removal of something unpleasant
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punishment
anything that makes a behavior less likelycompare: reinforcement
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positive punishment
the addition of something unpleasant
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omission training/negative punishment
the removal of something pleasant
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escape learning
an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
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avoidance learning
learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
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shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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chaining
in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action
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discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
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primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
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secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer
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generalized reinforcer
secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcersexample: money
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token economy
An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
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Premack principle
principle that a less frequently performed behavior can be increased in frequency by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior
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continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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partial-reinforcement effect
a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule
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fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
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fixed-interval schedule
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
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variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
218
instinctive drift
The tendency for an animal's innate responses to interfere with conditioning processes.
219
contiguity model
a model that the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place
220
contingency model
Robert Rescorla's revision of the contiguity model; the more times the presence of one predicts the other, the greater the learning that will take place
221
observational learning/modeling
studied by Albert Banduralearning through observation and imitation
222
latent learning
studied by Edward Tolmansometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced
223
Edward Tolman
researched latent learningconducted experiment on three groups of rats running through a maze
224
abstract learning
Understanding concepts rather than learning to simply press a bar or peck a disk in order to receive a reward
225
insight learning
studied by Wolfgang Kohlerwhen one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
226
Wolfgang Kohler
studied insight learningobserved chimpanzees suddenly learn how to get a banana
227
equipotentiality
any animal can be conditioned to do anythingopposite to instinctive drift
228
preparedness
biological predisposition to learn some things more quickly than others
229
three-box/information-processing model
sensory, encoding, short-term/working, long-term and retrieval
230
George Sperling
demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a secondalso: iconic memory
231
sensory memory
a split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information
232
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
233
echoic memory
a split-second perfect memory of a sound
234
selective attention
determines what is encoded from sensory memory to short-term memory
235
short-term (working) memory
memories currently using and are aware of in consciousness- short-term memories will fade in 10 to 30 seconds if mused - capacity is limited to about 7 items
236
chunking
grouping items in about 7memory tool
237
mnemonic aids
memory aidsmemory tool
238
rehearse
repeatmemory tool
239
long-term memory
permanent storage
240
episodic memory
memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events
241
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially
242
procedural memory
memories of skills and how to perform them
243
explicit (declarative) memory
conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember
244
implicit (nondeclarative) memory
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
245
eidetic (photographic) memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
246
Alexandra Luria
studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later
247
levels of processing model
- long/short-term memory doesn't exist- instead, deeply (elaboratively) or shallowly (maintenance) memory
248
retrieval
two types of retrieval: recognition and recall
249
recognition
the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory
250
recall
retrieving a memory with an external cue
251
primacy effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a listcompare: recency effect
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recency effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a listcompare: primacy effect
253
serial position effect (curve)
when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a listprimacy effect and recency effect
254
tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon
condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory
255
semantic network theory
memories are linked to one another like spiderwebs
256
flashbulb memory
highly detailed memory of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising news is heard
257
state-dependent memory
recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness, like sleepiness
258
mood congruent memory
the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened
259
Elizabeth Loftus
showed that recovered memories could be constructed or false recollections of events
260
constructed memory
may report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occured
261
decay
not using a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time
262
relearning
after learning and forgetting, learning again becomes faster
263
interference
other information competes with what you're trying to recalltwo types: retroactive and proactive
264
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older informationcompare: proactive interference
265
proactive interference
old information interferes with the recall of newer informationcompare: retroactive interference
266
anterograde amnesia
old memories can be recalled, new memories (except procedural) cannot be made
267
long-term potention
repeated firings between neurons strengthen the connection between them
268
phonemes
the smallest units of sound used in a languagecompare: morphemes
269
morphemes
the smallest unit of meaningful soundcompare: phonemes
270
language acquisition
natural unconscious process of language development in humans that occurs without instruction, but needs exposure1. babbling 2. telegraphic
271
language acquisition theory
the ability to learn a language rapidly as children
272
Noam Chomsky
language acquisition devicealso called nativist theory of language acquisition
273
language acquisition device
the ability to learn a language quickly as childrenalso called nativist theory of language acquisition
274
babbling stage
innate, represents a baby's experimentation with phonemesafter this stage, the baby loses the phonemes unused in the primary language
275
telegraphic
second stage in language acquisitioncombination of the words into simple commands and sentences; meaning clear, syntax absent
276
overgeneralization
misapplication of grammar rules
277
linguistic relativity hypothesis
Benjamin Whorflanguage may control or limit our thinking- studies show effect of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas, but do not show that language changes what we can think about
278
prototype
what concepts are based on, the most typical example of a particular concept
279
image
mental pictures created in mind, not necessarily visual
280
algorithm
a problem solving technique that guarantees the correct solution by trying every possibility
281
heuristic
a rule of thumb, generally but not always truetypes: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristicaffected by: belief bias and belief perseverance
282
availability heuristic
judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
283
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind
284
belief bias
illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
285
belief perseverance
tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradictedcompare: confirmation bias
286
rigidity (mental set)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
287
functional fixedness
an example of rigiditythe inability to see a new use for an object
288
confirmation bias
the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is truecompare: belief perseverence
289
framing
the way a problem is presented
290
creativity
original/novel but still fits the situation
291
convergent thinking
thinking pointed toward one solution
292
divergent thinking
thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a questionassociated with creativity
293
motivations
feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
294
Drive Reduction Theory
behavior is motivated by biological needsdoes not explain all behaviors, such as adrenaline addicts
295
need
one of our requirements for survival
296
drive
an impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need
297
homeostasis
a balanced internal state
298
primary drives
biological needs
299
secondary drives
learned drives
300
arousal theory
motivated by the need for an optimum level of excitement or arousalperformance is best at optimum levels of arousal, depending on how difficult the task is (Yerkes-Dodson law)
301
Yerkes-Dodson law
relationship between performance and arousal that states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
302
Incentive Theory
behavior is not pushed by a need, but by a desire (incentive)
303
incentive
stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
304
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
basic needs are fulfilled before other needs physiological (hunger, thirst, sex)safety (safe, secure, out of danger)belongingness and loveesteem (approval and recognition)self-actualization (fulfill unique potential
305
hunger motivation
stomach feels full --> we feel full (balloon experiment)
306
lateral hypothalamus
causes animal to eat when stimulated
307
ventromedial hypothalamus
causes animal to feel full when stimulated
308
set-point theory
the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight
309
metabolic rate
how quickly body uses energy
310
externals
people whoa re motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness or availability
311
internals
people who are ore motivated to eat by internal hunger cues (empty stomach)
312
Garcia effect
taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future
313
bulimia
has two phases: binging and purgingmostly women
314
binging
eating large amounts of food in a short amount of time
315
purging
getting rid of food through vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.
316
anorexia nervosa
starving yourself to below 85% of normal body weight: vast majority are women
317
obesity
severely overweight, unhealthy eating habits, some are genetically predisposed
318
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual Response Cycle
319
Sexual Response Cycle
created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson1. initial excitement2. plateau phase3. orgasm4. resolution
320
initial excitement (Sexual Response Cycle)
genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase
321
plateau phase (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus
322
orgasm (Sexual Response Cycle)
rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria
323
resolution (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period- a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately
324
achievement motivation
desire to master complex tasks and knowledge, desire to reach personal goals, desire to figure out worldregardless of benefits
325
extrinsic motivators
rewards received for accomplishments that are outside ourselvesvery effective for a short amount of time
326
intrinsic motivators
rewards we get internallymost effective at continuing a behavior
327
Management Theory
consists of theory x and theory y
328
theory x (Management Theory)
(legalism) people will only work for benefits or threatened with punishments
329
theory y (Management Theory)
employees are internally motivated to do good workhas more benefits
330
approach-approach conflict
decision between two favorable outcomes
331
avoidance-avoidance conflict
decision between two unfavorable outcomes
332
approach-avoidance conflict
one event/goal has both good and bad outcomes
333
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
334
Cannon-Bard theory
theory of emotion that the body changes and understanding of the emotion occurs simultaneously from cues in the thalamus- inaccurate about the thalamus playing such a big role, other structures such as the amygdala are involved
335
Two Factor Theory
Stanley Schacter- better than James-Lange and Cannon-Bard- both physical responses and cognitive labels combine to cause emotion- experiment showed that aroused people felt emotions more intensely than not aroused people
336
Stanley Schacter
created Two Factor Theory
337
stressors
stressful life events
338
stress reactions
reactions to stressors
339
social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
designed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahemeasures stress using life-change units (LCUs)regardless of posiive or negative, events may have the same LCU countshows correlation between stress and disease
340
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
created by Hans Seyledescribes the general response animals have to a stressful event1. alarm reaction2. resistance3. exhaustion
341
alarm reaction (GAS)
heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other body functions to muscles needed to react, activates the sympathetic nervous system
342
resistance (GAS)
hormones are released t maintain physiological readiness described in alarm reaction, if it lasts too long, can deplete resources
343
exhaustion (GAS)
parasympathetic nervous system returns body back to normal, more vulnerable to disease especially if resources were depleted
344
developmental psychology
the study of how behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives
345
cross-sectional research
participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over life span+ produces quick results- results may be due to factors other than age, such as historical evens and cultural change
346
longitudinal research
study of one group of participants over time+ precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group- time consuming, results may take years to develop
347
teratogens
certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested/contracted by the mother
348
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
displayed by children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy, small, malformed skulls and mental retardation are symptoms
349
fetal alcohol effect
less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems
350
reflex
specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli
351
rooting reflex
when touched on cheek, will turn head to put object in mouth
352
sucking reflex
object in mouth will suck
353
grasping reflex
object in hand or foot will grasp
354
Moro reflex
startled, fling limbs out, quickly retract them, make himself as small as possible
355
Babinski reflex
foot stroked, spread toes
356
attachment
the reciprocal relationship between parent and child
357
Henry Harlow
study on monkeys with two wire frame monkey mothers, one with milk, one that was soft- monkey babies preferred soft mother over milk motherconclusion: physical comfort is important in the formation of attachment with parents- wireframe baby monkeys became more stressed and frightened than normal baby monkeys when put into new situations
358
Mary Ainsworth
conducted study on what infants would do if their parents left them alone, then came backcategorized results into secure attachments (66%), avoidant attachments (21%) and anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
359
secure attachments (66%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experimentconfidently explore novel environment when parents are present, distressed when they leave, go to parents when they return
360
avoidant attachments (21%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experimentresist being held by the parents and will explore novel environment, don't go to parents for comfort when they return
361
nxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experimentshow extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted when they return
362
authoritarian parenting style
strict standards for their children's behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules
363
effects of authoritarian parenting style
- distrust others and withdrawal from peers- obedient attitudes are more important than discussions on why the rules are what they are- punishment used more than reinforcement
364
permissive parenting style
unclear guidelines for their children; rules are constantly changed or aren't enforced consistently
365
effects of permissive parenting style
emotional control problems are are more dependent
366
authoritative parenting style
set, consistent standards that are reasonable and explainedencourage children's independence, but not past point of violating rulespraise as much as punishexplanations encouraged
367
effects of authoritative parenting style
children are more socially capable and perform better academically
368
continuity
developing steadily from birth to death
369
discontinuity
developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change
370
psychosexual stages
theorized by Sigmund Freud1. oral2. anal3. phallic4. latency5. genital
371
oral (psychosexual stages)
first stage, pleasure through mouthfixation: overeating, smoking, childlike, dependence on things and people
372
anal (psychosexual stages)
second stage, toilet trainingfixation: overly controlling (retentive), out of control (expulsive)
373
phallic (psychosexual stages)
third stage, babies realize genderboys have Oedipus complex, girls have Electra complexfixation: later problems in relationships
374
latency (psychosexual stages)
forth stage, calm and low psychosexual anxiety
375
genital (psychosexual stages)
fifth and final stage, fixation here is normal
376
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian theoriest who believed in basics of Freud's theory but adapted it to fit his own observationscreated psychosocial stage theory
377
psychosocial stage theory (eight stages)
created by Erik Erikson1. trust vs. mistrust2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt3. initiative vs. guilt4. industry vs. inferiority5. identity vs. role confusion6. intimacy vs. isolation7. generativity vs. stagnation8. integrity vs. despair
378
trust vs. mistrust
first stage of psychosocial stage theoryduring the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
379
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
second stage of psychosocial stage theorya toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
380
initiative vs. guilt
third stage of psychosocial stage theorya child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.
381
industry vs. inferiority
fourth stage of psychosocial stage theorya child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.
382
identity vs. role confusion
fifth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.
383
intimacy vs. isolation
sixth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life
384
generativity vs. stagnation
seventh stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.
385
integrity vs. despair
eighth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.
386
Jean Piaget
created cognitive-development theory
387
assimilation
the incorporation of experiences into existing schemata
388
Jean Piaget's cognitive development stage theory
created by Jean Piaget1. sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)2. preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)3. concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)4. formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
389
sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
first stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theoryobject permanencebehavior governed by senses and reflexes
390
object permanence
objects continue to exist outside of visual rangestarts in sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
391
preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)
second stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theoryuse of symbols to represent real-world objectsstart using language, but limited in the ways of thinking about objects and their relationships
392
concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
third stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theorystart to think more logically about complex relationshipsconcepts of conservation
393
concepts of conservation
the properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes changestarts in concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
394
formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
fourth stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theoryabstract reasoninghypothesis testingmetacognition
395
abstract reasoning
manipulation of objects and contrasting ideas without seeing themstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
396
hypothesis testing
reason from a hypothesisstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
397
metacognition
thinking about thinkingstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
398
criticisms of Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory
- underestimates children- too discontinuous
399
information processing model
a continuous alternative of Piaget's stage theory
400
Lawrence Kohlberg
- experimented on children regarding moral development using the Heinz dilemma - created three broad categories of responses: preconventional, conventional, postconventional
401
Heinz dilemma
stealing a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife's life
402
preconventional
reasoning limited to how things affect themselves- don't steal the drug
403
conventional
choice based on how others will view them- steal
404
postconventional
examines rights and values involved in choice- steal
405
Criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan noted that his research was based on boys, her research showed that boys and girls had different moral attitudes, but was later disprovedHowever, her criticism brought attention to how possible gender differences may change how we develop
406
biopsychological (neuropsychological) theory of gender development
studies demonstrate that biological differences do exist between the sexeswomen have larger corpus callosums, which may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks
407
psychodynamic theory of gender development
gender development is a competition for your opposite sex parent, when you realize you can't win, you imitate your same-sex parentdifficult to verify this idea
408
social-cognitive theory of gender development
effects of society and thoughs about gender on role developmentgender-schema- messages about gender are internalized into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave
409
personality
the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
410
stage theories
theories in which development is thought to be discontinuousexample: Freud's stage theory; see developmental psychology chapter 9
411
penis envy
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theorygirls are jealous of boys' penises
412
castration anxiety
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theorythe fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated
413
idenitification
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theorywhen a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them
414
id
contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatosexists entirely in the unconscious mindpropelled by pleasure principle
415
pleasure principle
followed by idimmediate gratification
416
ego
follows the reality principlejob is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environmentexists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious minduses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious
417
reality principle
followed by egonegotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
418
superego
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mindsense of conscience
419
repression
pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness
420
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth
421
displacement
redirecting one's feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotioncompare: projection
422
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneselfcompare: displacement
423
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels
424
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
425
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence
426
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
427
sublimation
channeling one's frustration toward a different goalviewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism
428
criticisms of Freud
- little empirical evidence- all reactions can be taken as proof for psychoanalystic theory- little predictive power; only explains past actions- feminists find "penis envy" objectionable, Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow posit "womb envy"
429
psychodynamic theorists
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
430
Jung's unconscious
consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious
431
collective unconscious
unconscious passed down through the species; explains the similarities across culturescontains archetypes
432
archetypes
universal concepts we all share as part of the human species
433
personal unconscious
resembles Freud's view of the unconscious; contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront; called complexes
434
Freudian ego psychologist
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the egonotable ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
435
Alfred Adler
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
436
inferiority
the fear of failuretheorized by Adler to motivate people
437
superiority
the desire to achievetheorized by Adler to motivate people
438
nomothetic
the belief taht the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalitiesHans Eyesenck's introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scaleRaymond Cattel's 16 PF (personalty factor)big five personality traits
439
Hans Eyesenck
introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
440
Raymond Cattel
16 PF (personalty factor)
441
big five personality traits
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)
442
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traitsgroups the traits that correlate under a common factor
443
idiographic theorists
oppose nomothetic theoristsbelieve that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them
444
Gordon Allport
theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone's personality, you needed to look at their personal traitsposited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions
445
cardinal dispositions
one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do
446
central dispositions
more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions
447
secondary dispositions
less apparent than central dispositions
448
criticism of trait theories
underestimate importance of the situation
449
heritability
the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
450
temperaments
heritablethe emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the worldthought to influence the development of his or her personality
451
somatotype theory
William Sheldonidentified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin)each body type associated with certain personality traits
452
endomorphs (fat)
according to William Sheldonshy and secretive
453
mesomorphs (muscular)
according to William Sheldonaggressive
454
ectomorphs (thin)
according to William Sheldonfriendly and outgoing
455
Albert Bandura
believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior
456
triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism
the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion
457
self-efficacy
Refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels
458
George Kelley
proposed personal-construct theory of personality
459
personal-construct theory of personality
George Kelleypeople, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructspeople's behavior is based on how they interpret the world
460
locus of control
Julian Rotterinternal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to themexternal locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to theminternals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school
461
determinism
the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the pastcompare: free will
462
free will
an individual's ability to choose his or her own destinycompare: determinism
463
humanistic psychology
also called the third forceview people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free willfocus on self-concept and self-esteem
464
self-concept
a person's global feeling about himself and herself
465
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
466
self-actualize
to reach one's full potentialbelieved by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
467
self-theory
created by Carl Rogersbelieved that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize
468
unconditional positive regard
a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers' self-theory
469
projective tests
used by psychoanalystsinvolve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuliexample: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)
470
self-report inventories
questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselvesexample: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
471
Barnum effect
the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality
472
standardized
tested on a standardization sample and made to fit norms
473
standardization samples
a group of people representative of the people who normally will take the test
474
reliability
results are consistent; can be duplicatedcompare: reliability
475
split-half reliability
test is split into two, each half is tested, if the scores are consistent, then the test is reliable (the closer the correlation is to +1, the more reliable)
476
equivalent-form reliability
correlation between performance on different forms of the test
477
test-retest reliability
correlation between a person's score on one administration of the test with the same person's score on a subsequent administration of the test
478
valid
measures what it's supposed to measure, accuratecompare: reliability
479
face validity
"if it looks like it works"type of content validity
480
content validity
how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it's supposed to be testing
481
concurrent validity
measures how much of a characteristic a person has nowtype of criterion-related validity
482
predictive validity
measures future performancetype of criterion-related validity
483
construct validity
correlates the new test with another already-proved-to-be-valid test
484
aptitude test
test that measures ability or potential
485
achievement test
test that measures what one has accomplished or learned
486
speed test
large number of questions asked in a short amount of time, insufficient time is givengoal: see how fast someone can solve problemscompare: power test
487
power test
questions are asked in increasing difficulty level, sufficient time is givengoal: see what the ceiling difficulty level iscompare: speed test
488
group test
test administered to a large group of people, less expensive, more objectivecompare: individual test
489
individual test
test administered on a one-on-one basis, more expensive, less objectivecompare: group test
490
intelligence
the ability to gather and use information in productive ways
491
fluid intelligence
the ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills, seems to decrease over timecompare: crystallized intelligence
492
crystallized intelligence
the ability to use knowledge accumulated over time, seems to stay the same or increase over timecompare: fluid intelligence
493
Charles Spearman
intelligence theoristused factor analysis (statistical technique that measures the correlations between different items) to conclude that underlying many different specific abilities "s" is a single factor named "g"[Charles Spearman threw a "g" (gangster) SPEAR threw many S shaped stones]
494
L.L. Thurstone
primary mental ability theory has seven main abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning[THOR juggled SEVEN STONEs]
495
J.P. Guilford
primary mental ability theory has well over 100 different abilities[The combination of GUILE and over 100 different abilities made her invincible]
496
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences theoristSpatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic[In his garden grew many different kinds of smart plants]
497
Daniel Goldman
supports EQ (emotional intelligence)[a heart of gold]
498
EQ (emotional intelligence)
ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups; helps people achieve what they want to achieveroughly corresponds to Gardner's interpersonal and intrapersonalsupported by Daniel Goldman
499
Robert Sternberg
created triarchic theory, which consists of 1. componential/analytic intelligence2. experiential intelligence3. contextual/practical intelligence
500
componential/analytic intelligence
the ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyzepart of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
