BARRONS

Question 1

social cognition

Answer 1

how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

Question 2

attitude

Answer 2

set of beliefs and feelings

Question 3

mere exposure effect

Answer 3

the more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it

Question 4

LaPiere study

Answer 4

discovered that although people had bad attitudes towards Asians, they still treated them well

conclusion: attitude does not necessarily reflect behavior

Question 5

cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 5

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Question 6

Festinger and Carlsmith experiment

Answer 6

Subjects asked to perform a boring task and then lie to the next subject that it was fun. One group was paid $1 and the other group was paid $20. The group paid $1 said that the boring task was fun, because they didn’t have much of an external motivation to lie.

Question 7

compliance strategies

Answer 7

strategies to get others to comply with your wishes

Question 8

foot-in-the-door

Answer 8

if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger

Question 9

door-in-the-face

Answer 9

after people refuse a large reques, hey will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable

Question 10

norms of reciprocity

Answer 10

if someone does something nice for you, you feel obligated to do something nice for them

Question 11

attribution theory

Answer 11

how people determine the cause of what they observe

Question 12

dispositional/person attribution

Answer 12

personality traits; Charley did well on a math test because he is good at math

Question 13

situation attribution

Answer 13

situational influence; Charley did well on a math test because the test was easy

Question 14

Harold Kelley

Answer 14

put forth a theory that explains the kind of attributions people make based on three kinds of information: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

Question 15

consistency

Answer 15

how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time

Question 16

distinctiveness

Answer 16

how similar this situation is to other situations in which we have watched the individual

Question 17

consensus

Answer 17

how other people acted in the same situation

Question 18

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 18

an expectation that causes others to act in ways that make that expectation come true

Question 19

Rosenthal and Jacobsen’s experiment

Answer 19

“Pygmalion in the Classroom”

when teachers expect students to do well and show intellectual growth, they do, example of self-fulling prophecy

Question 20

fundamental attribution error

Answer 20

people in individualist cultures systematically seem to overestimate the role of dispositional factors in influencing another person’s actions

Question 21

false-consensus effect

Answer 21

the tendency of people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them

Question 22

self-serving bias

Answer 22

the tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones

Question 23

just-world belief

Answer 23

misfortunes befall people who deserve them

Question 24

stereotypes

Answer 24

ideas about what members of different groups are like, and these expectations may influence the way we interact with members of these groups

Question 25

prejudice

Answer 25

an undeserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of people

compare: discrimination

Question 26

discrimination

Answer 26

unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice

compare: prejudice

Question 27

in-group

Answer 27

people of their own group, seen as more diverse than people of out-groups

Question 28

out-group

Answer 28

people of other groups, seen as more homogeneous than people of in-groups

Question 29

in-group bias

Answer 29

people have a preference for members of their own group

Question 30

contact theory

Answer 30

contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the groups are made to work toward a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all (superordinate goal)

Question 31

superordinate goal

Answer 31

a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all

Question 32

Sherif’s camp study

Answer 32

Robbers Cave study

divided the campers into two groups and had them compete –> disliked each other

had the two groups work together –> improved relations

Question 33

instrumental aggression

Answer 33

aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain

Question 34

hostile aggression

Answer 34

aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain

Question 35

frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 35

the feeling of frestration makes aggression more likely

Question 36

Bandura, Ross, and Ross’s experiment

Answer 36

Bobo doll experiment

aggressive models lead to aggressive children

Question 37

prosocial behavior

Answer 37

behavior in which you help others

Question 38

bystander intervention

Answer 38

the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation

Question 39

diffusion of responsibility

Answer 39

reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect

Question 40

pluralistic ignorance

Answer 40

“no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes”

Question 41

similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking

Answer 41

the three factors of physical attractiveness

Question 42

trephination

Answer 42

a operation that removes a circular section of bone from the skull

Question 43

Hippocrates

Answer 43

a Greek philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated

Question 44

Galen

Answer 44

a Roman philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated

Question 45

deinstitutionalization

Answer 45

1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals in order to save money and benefit the former inpatients

Question 46

Did deinstitutionalization work?

Answer 46

No, because the former patients were unable to care for themselves, ending up homeless and delusional.

Question 47

preventative efforts

Answer 47

psychological problems can be treated proactively, or before they become severe, suffering and cost to client will go down.

Question 48

primary prevention

Answer 48

methods to avoid occurrence of disease

Question 49

secondary prevention

Answer 49

methods to avoid occurrence of disease in people at risk

Question 50

tertiary prevention

Answer 50

methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity

Question 51

psychotherapy

Answer 51

therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client, patient, family, couple, or group

Question 52

somatic treatments

Answer 52

the use of drugs to treat mental illness

Question 53

What kind of psychologists use “patient”?

Answer 53

psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts

Question 54

What kind of psychologists use “client”?

Answer 54

therapists other than psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts

Question 55

psychoanalysis

Answer 55

a set of techniques developed by Freud for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders

Question 56

symptom substitution

Answer 56

when, after a person is successfully treated for one psychological disorder, that person begins to experience a new psychological problem

Question 57

hypnosis

Answer 57

an altered state of consciousness in which psychoanalysts believe that people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts

Question 58

free associate

Answer 58

to say whatever comes to mind without thinking, supposed to bypass the ego’s censoring and defenses and go straight into the unconscious where the problems are

Question 59

dream analysis

Answer 59

the patient reports the literal content (manifest content) to the psychoanalyst who interprets it to become what it really means (latent/hidden content)

Question 60

resistance

Answer 60

patient objections to the psychoanalyst’s interpretation

the psychoanalyst usually sees this as a sign that the analyst is heading in the right direction

Question 61

transference

Answer 61

when patients begin to have strong feelings (negative or positive) toward their therapists

the psychoanalyst sees this as a redirection of strong emotions felt toward people with whom they have had troubling relationships onto their therapists

Question 62

psychodynamic theorists

Answer 62

psychologists who are influenced by Freud’s work but have significantly modified his original theory

Question 63

insight therapies

Answer 63

psychoanalytic/psychodynamic treatments and humanistic therapies

a variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses

Question 64

self-actualization

Answer 64

to reach one’s highest potential

Question 65

free will

Answer 65

the ability to choose their own destinies

compare: determinism

Question 66

determinism

Answer 66

people have no influence over what happens to them and that their choices are predetermined by forces outside of their control

compare: free will

Question 67

Carl Rogers

Answer 67

humanist

created client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy

Question 68

client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy

Answer 68

developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard and active listening

Question 69

unconditional positive regard

Answer 69

blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does

humanistic therapists believe that this will help clients accept and take responsibility for themselves

Question 70

non-directive

Answer 70

humanistic therapists do not tell the clients what to do but seek to help the clients choose a course of action for themselves.

Question 71

active listening

Answer 71

empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies

part of Carl Rogers’ client-centered therapy

Question 72

Gestalt therapy

Answer 72

developed by Fritz Perls

an existentialist approach to psychological treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them

Question 73

existential therapy

Answer 73

humanistic therapy that focuses on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives

Question 74

counterconditioning

Answer 74

behavioral therapy

a kind of classical conditioning developed by Mary Cover Jones in which an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one

Question 75

systematic desensitization

Answer 75

behavioral therapy

developed by Joseph Wolpe, a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with imagined, gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli, eventually replacing the feelings of anxiety with relaxation

Question 76

anxiety hierarchy

Answer 76

a rank-ordered list of what the client fears, from least frightening to most frightening

Question 77

in vivo desensitization

Answer 77

behavioral therapy

a form of systematic desensitization in which the stimulus is actually encountered

Question 78

implosive therapy

Answer 78

behavioral therapy

a type of counterconditioning that has the client imagine the most anxiety inducing thing first, in the hopes that they will realize that their fear is irrational

Question 79

aversive conditioning

Answer 79

behavioral therapy

pairing a habit a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus

Question 80

instrumental conditioning

Answer 80

behavioral therapy

involves using rewards and/or punishments to modify a person’s behavior

Question 81

token economy

Answer 81

behavioral therapy

a type of instrumental conditioning

desired behaviors are identified and rewarded with tokens that can later be exchanged for various objects or privileges

Question 82

modeling (therapy)

Answer 82

behavioral therapy

can be used to treat phobia by having the client observe someone else interact calmly with the anxiety inducing object

Question 83

attributional style

Answer 83

a person’s characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life

Question 84

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT or RET)

Answer 84

Cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis. Therapists look to expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of their clients.

Question 85

cognitive therapy

Answer 85

developed by Aaron Beck, usually used in treatment of depression, involves trying to get clients to engage in pursuits that will bring them success

Question 86

cognitive triad

Answer 86

theorized by Aaron Beck

people’s beliefs about themselves, their worlds, and their futures

Question 87

family therapy

Answer 87

a type of group therapy used to treat families

Question 88

self-help groups

Answer 88

a type of group therapy that does not involve a therapist

Question 89

psychopharmacology/chemotherapy

Answer 89

the use of drugs to treat psychological problems

Question 90

antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics)

Answer 90

block the receptor sites for dopamine, used to treat schizophrenia, may result in tardive dyskinesia

examples: Thorazine or Haldol

Question 91

tardive dyskinesia

Answer 91

Parkinsonian-like, chronic muscle tremors

Question 92

lithium

Answer 92

a metal used to treat the manic phase of bipolar disorder

Question 93

drugs used to treat anxiety disorders

Answer 93

barbiturates (Miltown) and benzodiazepines (Xanax and Valium)

Question 94

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Answer 94

when an electric current is passed through one (unilateral ECT) or both (bilateral ECT) hemispheres of the brain

Used to treat major depression and bipolar that is not responsive to other treatments.

Question 95

psychosurgery

Answer 95

the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a person’s behavior

Question 96

prefrontal lobotomy

Answer 96

a type of psychosurgery

an operation involving the cutting off of the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe of the brain

reduced level of functioning and awareness to a vegetative state

Question 97

psychiatrists

Answer 97

medical doctors and are the only therapists permitted to prescribe medication

Question 98

clinical psychologists

Answer 98

psychologists with a Ph. D. and specialize in research, assessment, and therapy

Question 99

counseling psychologists

Answer 99

psychologists with a graduate degree in psychology and treat less severe problems than clinical psychologists do

Question 100

psychoanalysts

Answer 100

people trained specifically in Freudian methods who may or may not hold medical degrees

Question 101

abnormal psychology

Answer 101

the study of people who suffer from psychological disorders

Question 102

abnormality

Answer 102

1. maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual
2. disturbing to others
3. unusual, unshared by many others of the same population
4. irrational, doesn’t make sense to the average person

Question 103

insane

Answer 103

a legal term used to describe people who, because of a psychological disorder, cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes

NGRI= not guilty by reason of insanity

Question 104

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

Answer 104

a book used by psychologists to determine if someone has a psychological disorder

does not include discussion of causes or treatments because different factions of psychology have different ideas about the causes and treatments

latest version is the DSM-IV-TR

Question 105

intern’s syndrome

Answer 105

the tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders about which one is learning

Question 106

phobia

Answer 106

anxiety disorder

an intense, unwarranted fear of a situation or object

Question 107

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

Answer 107

anxiety disorder

constant, low-level anxiety

Question 108

panic disorder

Answer 108

anxiety disorder

acute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation, panic attacks tend to increase in frequency, people suffer more anxiety from anticipating the attacks

Question 109

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Answer 109

anxiety disorder

when persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action

Question 110

post-traumatic stress disorder

Answer 110

anxiety disorder

flashbacks or nightmares following a person’s involvement in or an observation of an extremely troubling event, these memories cause anxiety

Question 111

somatoform disorders

Answer 111

when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological problem

Question 112

hypochondriasis

Answer 112

somatoform disorder

minor problems are thought to be severe physical illness, frequent physical problems with no apparent cause

Question 113

conversion disorder

Answer 113

somatoform disorder

a severe physical problem with no biological cause

Question 114

dissociative disorders

Answer 114

disruptions in conscious processes

Question 115

psychogenic amnesia

Answer 115

dissociative disorder

when a person cannot remember things and a physiological basis cannot be found

compare: organic amnesia

Question 116

organic amnesia

Answer 116

when a person cannot remember things and there is a biological reason

compare: psychogenic amnesia

Question 117

fugue state

Answer 117

dissociative disorder

having psychogenic amnesia and finding oneself in an unfamiliar environment

Question 118

dissociative identity disorder

Answer 118

dissociative disorder

several personalities that may represent different ages and both sexes, people with DID commonly have a history of sexual abuse or some other childhood trauma

rare outside of US; DIDers may be role-playing b/c of their therapists’ questions and media portrayals

Question 119

major (unipolar) depression

Answer 119

mood or affective disorder

unhappiness for more than two weeks without a clear reason

other symptoms: loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, feeling of worthlessness

linked with low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine

Question 120

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Answer 120

dissociative disorder

depression only during certain times of the year, usually winter

Question 121

bipolar disorder (manic depression)

Answer 121

dissociative disorder

depressed and manic (feelings of high energy) episodes

linked with more receptors for acetylcholine

Question 122

Aaron Beck

Answer 122

cognitive theorist who believes that the cognitive triad causes depression

Question 123

cognitive triad

Answer 123

theorized by Aaron Beck

unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world and their futures

failure is attributed to internal, global and stable causes

success is attributed to external, specific and unstable causes

Question 124

schizophrenia

Answer 124

disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations

Question 125

delusions

Answer 125

beliefs that have no basis in reality

common delusions are persecution and grandeur

Question 126

hallucination

Answer 126

perception without sensory stimulation

Question 127

disorganized schizophrenics

Answer 127

use language oddly with neologisms and/or clang associations

also show inappropriate affect and flat affect

Question 128

neologisms

Answer 128

a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics

made up words

Question 129

clang associations

Answer 129

a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics

a string of nonsense words that rhyme

Question 130

inappropriate affect

Answer 130

a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics

expressing contradictory behavior when describing or experiencing an emotion (e.g., smiling when discussing something sad; laughing when talking about the death of a loved one).

Question 131

flat affect

Answer 131

a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics

lack of emotinal reactivity

Question 132

paranoid schizophrenia

Answer 132

schizophrenia characterized by delusions of persecution

Question 133

catatonic schizophrenia

Answer 133

engage in odd movements such as remaining motionless in strange postures for hours at a time, move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason or alternate between the two

when motionless, may display waxy flexibility

increasingly less common form of schizophrenia in United States

Question 134

waxy flexibility

Answer 134

characteristic of catatonic schizophrenics

feature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they are placed by others

Question 135

undifferentiated schizophrenia

Answer 135

exhibit disordered thinking, but none of the other symptoms

Question 136

positive symptoms

Answer 136

excesses in behavior, thought, or mood

examples: neologisms, hallucinations

compare: negative symptoms

Question 137

negative symptoms

Answer 137

deficits in behavior, thought, or mood

examples: flat affect, catatonia

compare: positive symptoms

Question 138

dopamine relationship with schizophrenia 

Answer 138

high levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia

Question 139

tardive dyskinesia

Answer 139

muscle tremors and stiffness caused by extensive use of anti psychotic drugs

Question 140

double binds theory

Answer 140

cognitive-behavioral cause for schizophrenia

The Double Bind Theory was first articulated in relationship to schizophrenia when Bateson and his colleagues hypothesized that schizophrenic thinking was not necessarily an inborn mental disorder but a pattern of learned helplessness in response to cognitive double-binds externally imposed.

contradictory messages

compare: double blinds

Question 141

paraphilia

Answer 141

the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual

most paraphilias occur more commonly in men than in women, except for masochism

Question 142

fetishism

Answer 142

paraphilia

attraction to objects

Question 143

pedophilia

Answer 143

paraphilia
abnormal sexual desire in adults for children

Question 144

zoophilia

Answer 144

paraphilia

attraction to animals

Question 145

voyeurism

Answer 145

paraphilia

someone who becomes sexually aroused by watching others engage in some kind of sexual behavior

Question 146

masochist

Answer 146

paraphilia

someone who is aroused by having pain inflicted upon them

Question 147

sadist

Answer 147

paraphilia

someone who is aroused by inflicting pain on someone else

Question 148

antisocial personality disorder

Answer 148

little regard for other people’s feelings

criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder

Question 149

dependent personality disorder

Answer 149

rely too much on the attention and help of others

Question 150

paranoid personality disorder

Answer 150

feeling persecuted, always nervous

Question 151

narcissistic personality disorder

Answer 151

seeing oneself as the center of the universe

Question 152

histronic personality disorder

Answer 152

overly dramatic behavior

Question 153

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Answer 153

overly concerned with certain thoughts and performing certain behaviors, but not to the point of obsessive compulsive disorder

Question 154

anorexia nervosa

Answer 154

eating disorder

loss of 15 percent or more of the average body weight for one’s age and size, an intense fear of fat and food, distorted body image

Question 155

bulimia

Answer 155

eating disorder

fear of food and fat and a distorted body image

consists of a binge-purge cycle (eat a lot, then throw it up or use laxatives to get rid of the food)

Question 156

substance use disorder

Answer 156

regular and negative use of alcohol or other drugs that alter behavior

Question 157

substance dependence

Answer 157

addiction

Question 158

autism

Answer 158

developmental disorder

seek less social and emotional contact than other children

slow to develop language skills

less likely to seek out parental support when distressed

Question 159

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Answer 159

developmental disorder

difficulty paying attention or sitting still, occurs more commonly in boys

may be an overdiagnosis of a behavior typical in young boys

Question 160

Rosenhan Study

Answer 160

study in which healthy individuals were admitted into mental hospitals after saying they were hearing voices. Once in, they acted normally and still were not labeled as impostors.

raised questions about institutional care levels and the influence of labels

Question 161

standardized

Answer 161

tested on a standardization sample and made to fit norms

Question 162

standardization samples

Answer 162

a group of people representative of the people who normally will take the test

Question 163

reliability

Answer 163

results are consistent; can be duplicated

compare: reliability

Question 164

split-half reliability

Answer 164

test is split into two, each half is tested, if the scores are consistent, then the test is reliable (the closer the correlation is to +1, the more reliable)

Question 165

equivalent-form reliability

Answer 165

correlation between performance on different forms of the test

Question 166

test-retest reliability

Answer 166

correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on a subsequent administration of the test

Question 167

valid

Answer 167

measures what it’s supposed to measure, accurate

compare: reliability

Question 168

face validity

Answer 168

“if it looks like it works”

type of content validity

Question 169

content validity

Answer 169

how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it’s supposed to be testing

Question 170

concurrent validity

Answer 170

measures how much of a characteristic a person has now

type of criterion-related validity

Question 171

predictive validity

Answer 171

measures future performance

type of criterion-related validity

Question 172

construct validity

Answer 172

correlates the new test with another already-proved-to-be-valid test

Question 173

aptitude test

Answer 173

test that measures ability or potential

Question 174

achievement test

Answer 174

test that measures what one has accomplished or learned

Question 175

speed test

Answer 175

large number of questions asked in a short amount of time, insufficient time is given

goal: see how fast someone can solve problems

compare: power test

Question 176

power test

Answer 176

questions are asked in increasing difficulty level, sufficient time is given

goal: see what the ceiling difficulty level is

compare: speed test

Question 177

group test

Answer 177

test administered to a large group of people, less expensive, more objective

compare: individual test

Question 178

individual test

Answer 178

test administered on a one-on-one basis, more expensive, less objective

compare: group test

Question 179

intelligence

Answer 179

the ability to gather and use information in productive ways

Question 180

fluid intelligence

Answer 180

the ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills, seems to decrease over time

compare: crystallized intelligence

Question 181

crystallized intelligence

Answer 181

the ability to use knowledge accumulated over time, seems to stay the same or increase over time

compare: fluid intelligence

Question 182

Charles Spearman

Answer 182

intelligence theorist

used factor analysis (statistical technique that measures the correlations between different items) to conclude that underlying many different specific abilities “s” is a single factor named “g”

[Charles Spearman threw a “g” (gangster) SPEAR threw many S shaped stones]

Question 183

L.L. Thurstone

Answer 183

primary mental ability theory has seven main abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning

[THOR juggled SEVEN STONEs]

Question 184

J.P. Guilford

Answer 184

primary mental ability theory has well over 100 different abilities

[The combination of GUILE and over 100 different abilities made her invincible]

Question 185

Howard Gardner

Answer 185

multiple intelligences theorist

Spatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic

[In his garden grew many different kinds of smart plants]

Question 186

Daniel Goldman

Answer 186

supports EQ (emotional intelligence)

[a heart of gold]

Question 187

EQ (emotional intelligence)

Answer 187

ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups; helps people achieve what they want to achieve

Question 188

Robert Sternberg

Answer 188

created triarchic theory, which consists of

1. componential/analytic intelligence
2. experiential intelligence
3. contextual/practical intelligence

Question 189

componential/analytic intelligence

Answer 189

the ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyze

part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg

Question 190

experiential intelligence

Answer 190

the ability to use their knowledge and experiences in new and creative ways

part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg

Question 191

contextual/practical intelligence

Answer 191

the ability to apply their knowledge to real-world situations

part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg

Question 192

Alfred Binet

Answer 192

wanted to design test to find children who would need help in school and created mental age

Question 193

mental age

Answer 193

an average 5-year-old will have the mental age of 5

a below average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 3

an above average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 8

Question 194

Louis Terman

Answer 194

a Stanford professor, came up with Stanford-Binet IQ test

Question 195

Stanford-Binet IQ test

Answer 195

-divide mental age by chronological age, then multiply by 100

-all adults have mental age of 20

-compare: Weschler tests

Question 196

Weschler test

Answer 196

yields deviation IQ scores, mean is 100, standard deviation is 15, scores form a normal distribution

also has subscores for verbal and performance

Question 197

heritability

Answer 197

a measure of how much of a trait’s variation is explained by genetic factor

can range from 0 to 1, with 0 being completely environmentally affected and 1 as completely genetically affected

Question 198

Flynn effect

Answer 198

performance on intelligence tests has been increasing steadily throughout the century, probably due to better environmental factors

Question 199

personality

Answer 199

the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person

Question 200

stage theories

Answer 200

theories in which development is thought to be discontinuous

example: Freud’s stage theory; see developmental psychology chapter 9

Question 201

penis envy

Answer 201

part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory

girls are jealous of boys’ penises

Question 202

castration anxiety

Answer 202

part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory

the fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated

Question 203

identification

Answer 203

part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory

when a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them

Question 204

id

Answer 204

contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatos

exists entirely in the unconscious mind

propelled by pleasure principle

Question 205

pleasure principle

Answer 205

followed by id

immediate gratification

Question 206

ego

Answer 206

follows the reality principle

job is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment

exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind

uses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious

Question 207

reality principle

Answer 207

followed by ego

negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment

Question 208

superego

Answer 208

exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind

sense of conscience

Question 209

repression

Answer 209

pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness

Question 210

denial

Answer 210

not accepting the ego-threatening truth

Question 211

displacement

Answer 211

redirecting one’s feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotion

compare: projection

Question 212

projection

Answer 212

believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself

compare: displacement

Question 213

reaction formation

Answer 213

expressing the opposite of how one truly feels

Question 214

regression

Answer 214

returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior

Question 215

rationalization

Answer 215

coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence

Question 216

intellectualization

Answer 216

undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic

Question 217

sublimation

Answer 217

channeling one’s frustration toward a different goal

viewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism

Question 218

Jung’s unconscious

Answer 218

consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious

Question 219

collective unconscious

Answer 219

unconscious passed down through the species; explains the similarities across cultures

contains archetypes

Question 220

archetypes

Answer 220

universal concepts we all share as part of the human species

Question 221

personal unconscious

Answer 221

resembles Freud’s view of the unconscious; contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront; called complexes

Question 222

Freudian ego psychologist

Answer 222

a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego

notable ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority

Question 223

Alfred Adler

Answer 223

a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority

Question 224

inferiority

Answer 224

the fear of failure

theorized by Adler to motivate people

Question 225

superiority

Answer 225

the desire to achieve

theorized by Adler to motivate people

Question 226

nomothetic

Answer 226

the belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities

Hans Eysenck’s introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale

Raymond Cattel’s 16 PF (personality factor)

big five personality traits

Question 227

Hans Eyesenck

Answer 227

introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale

Question 228

Raymond Cattel

Answer 228

16 PF (personalty factor)

Question 229

big five personality traits

Answer 229

extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)

Question 230

factor analysis

Answer 230

a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traits

groups the traits that correlate under a common factor

Question 231

idiographic theorists

Answer 231

oppose nomothetic theorists

believe that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them

Question 232

Gordon Allport

Answer 232

theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone’s personality, you needed to look at their personal traits

posited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions

Question 233

cardinal dispositions

Answer 233

one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do

Question 234

central dispositions

Answer 234

more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions

Question 235

secondary dispositions

Answer 235

less apparent than central dispositions

Question 236

criticism of trait theories

Answer 236

underestimate importance of the situation

Question 237

heritability

Answer 237

the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited

Question 238

temperaments

Answer 238

heritable

the emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world

thought to influence the development of his or her personality

Question 239

somatotype theory

Answer 239

William Sheldon

identified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin)

each body type associated with certain personality traits

Question 240

endomorphs (fat)

Answer 240

according to William Sheldon

shy and secretive

Question 241

mesomorphs (muscular)

Answer 241

according to William Sheldon

aggressive

Question 242

ectomorphs (thin)

Answer 242

according to William Sheldon

friendly and outgoing

Question 243

Albert Bandura

Answer 243

believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior

Question 244

triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism

Answer 244

the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion

Question 245

self-efficacy

Answer 245

Refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels

Question 246

George Kelley

Answer 246

proposed personal-construct theory of personality

Question 247

personal-construct theory of personality

Answer 247

George Kelley

people, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructs

people’s behavior is based on how they interpret the world

Question 248

locus of control

Answer 248

Julian Rotter

internal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to them

external locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to them

internals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school

Question 249

determinism

Answer 249

the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the past

compare: free will

Question 250

free will

Answer 250

an individual’s ability to choose his or her own destiny

compare: determinism

Question 251

humanistic psychology

Answer 251

also called the third force

view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free will

focus on self-concept and self-esteem

Question 252

self-concept

Answer 252

a person’s global feeling about himself and herself

Question 253

self-esteem

Answer 253

A measure of how much you value and respect yourself

Question 254

self-actualize

Answer 254

to reach one’s full potential

believed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Question 255

self-theory

Answer 255

created by Carl Rogers

believed that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize

Question 256

unconditional positive regard

Answer 256

a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers’ self-theory

Question 257

projective tests

Answer 257

used by psychoanalysts

involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli

example: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)

Question 258

self-report inventories

Answer 258

questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves

example: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

Question 259

Barnum effect

Answer 259

the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality

Question 260

developmental psychology

Answer 260

the study of how behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives

Question 261

cross-sectional research

Answer 261

participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over life span

+ produces quick results

• results may be due to factors other than age, such as historical evens and cultural change

Question 262

longitudinal research

Answer 262

study of one group of participants over time

+ precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group

• time consuming, results may take years to develop

Question 263

teratogens

Answer 263

certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested/contracted by the mother

Question 264

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Answer 264

displayed by children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy, small, malformed skulls and mental retardation are symptoms

Question 265

fetal alcohol effect

Answer 265

less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems

Question 266

reflex

Answer 266

specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli

Question 267

rooting reflex

Answer 267

when touched on cheek, will turn head to put object in mouth

Question 268

sucking reflex

Answer 268

object in mouth will suck

Question 269

grasping reflex

Answer 269

object in hand or foot will grasp

Question 270

Moro reflex

Answer 270

startled, fling limbs out, quickly retract them, make himself as small as possible

Question 271

Babinski reflex

Answer 271

foot stroked, spread toes

Question 272

attachment

Answer 272

the reciprocal relationship between parent and child

Question 273

Henry Harlow

Answer 273

study on monkeys with two wire frame monkey mothers, one with milk, one that was soft

• monkey babies preferred soft mother over milk mother

conclusion: physical comfort is important in the formation of attachment with parents

• wireframe baby monkeys became more stressed and frightened than normal baby monkeys when put into new situations

Question 274

Mary Ainsworth

Answer 274

conducted study on what infants would do if their parents left them alone, then came back

categorized results into secure attachments (66%), avoidant attachments (21%) and anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)

Question 275

secure attachments (66%)

Answer 275

Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment

confidently explore novel environment when parents are present, distressed when they leave, go to parents when they return

Question 276

avoidant attachments (21%)

Answer 276

Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment

resist being held by the parents and will explore novel environment, don’t go to parents for comfort when they return

Question 277

anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)

Answer 277

Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment

show extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted when they return

Question 278

authoritarian parenting style

Answer 278

strict standards for their children’s behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules

Question 279

effects of authoritarian parenting style

Answer 279

• distrust others and withdrawal from peers
• obedient attitudes are more important than discussions on why the rules are what they are
• punishment used more than reinforcement

Question 280

permissive parenting style

Answer 280

unclear guidelines for their children; rules are constantly changed or aren’t enforced consistently

Question 281

effects of permissive parenting style

Answer 281

emotional control problems are are more dependent

Question 282

authoritative parenting style

Answer 282

set, consistent standards that are reasonable and explained

encourage children’s independence, but not past point of violating rules

praise as much as punish

explanations encouraged

Question 283

effects of authoritative parenting style

Answer 283

children are more socially capable and perform better academically`

Question 284

continuity

Answer 284

developing steadily from birth to death

Question 285

discontinuity

Answer 285

developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change

Question 286

psychosexual stages

Answer 286

theorized by Sigmund Freud

1. oral
2. anal
3. phallic
4. latency
5. genital

Question 287

oral (psychosexual stages)

Answer 287

first stage, pleasure through mouth

fixation: overeating, smoking, childlike, dependence on things and people

Question 288

anal (psychosexual stages)

Answer 288

second stage, toilet training

fixation: overly controlling (retentive), out of control (expulsive)

Question 289

phallic (psychosexual stages)

Answer 289

third stage, babies realize gender

boys have Oedipus complex, girls have Electra complex

fixation: later problems in relationships

Question 290

latency (psychosexual stages)

Answer 290

forth stage, calm and low psychosexual anxiety

Question 291

genital (psychosexual stages)

Answer 291

fifth and final stage, fixation here is normal

Question 292

Erik Erikson

Answer 292

neo-Freudian theoriest who believed in basics of Freud’s theory but adapted it to fit his own observations

created psychosocial stage theory

Question 293

psychosocial stage theory (eight stages)

Answer 293

created by Erik Erikson

1. trust vs. mistrust
2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
3. initiative vs. guilt
4. industry vs. inferiority
5. identity vs. role confusion
6. intimacy vs. isolation
7. generativity vs. stagnation
8. integrity vs. despair

Question 294

trust vs. mistrust

Answer 294

first stage of psychosocial stage theory

during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner

Question 295

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Answer 295

second stage of psychosocial stage theory

a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt

Question 296

initiative vs. guilt

Answer 296

third stage of psychosocial stage theory

a child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.

Question 297

industry vs. inferiority

Answer 297

fourth stage of psychosocial stage theory

a child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.

Question 298

identity vs. role confusion

Answer 298

fifth stage of psychosocial stage theory

From age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.

Question 299

intimacy vs. isolation

Answer 299

sixth stage of psychosocial stage theory

From age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life

Question 300

generativity vs. stagnation

Answer 300

seventh stage of psychosocial stage theory

From age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.

Question 301

integrity vs. despair

Answer 301

eighth stage of psychosocial stage theory

From age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.

Question 302

Jean Piaget

Answer 302

created cognitive-development theory

Question 303

assimilation

Answer 303

the incorporation of experiences into existing schemata

Question 304

Jean Piaget’s cognitive development stage theory

Answer 304

created by Jean Piaget

1. sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
2. preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)
3. concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
4. formal operations (12 years through adulthood)`

Question 305

sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)

Answer 305

first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory

object permanence

behavior governed by senses and reflexes

Question 306

object permanence

Answer 306

objects continue to exist outside of visual range

starts in sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)

Question 307

preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)

Answer 307

second stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory

use of symbols to represent real-world objects

start using language, but limited in the ways of thinking about objects and their relationships

Question 308

concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)

Answer 308

third stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory

start to think more logically about complex relationships

concepts of conservation

Question 309

concepts of conservation

Answer 309

the properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes change

starts in concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)

Question 310

formal operations (12 years through adulthood)

Answer 310

fourth stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory

abstract reasoning

hypothesis testing

metacognition

Question 311

abstract reasoning

Answer 311

manipulation of objects and contrasting ideas without seeing them

starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)

Question 312

hypothesis testing

Answer 312

reason from a hypothesis

starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)

Question 313

metacognition

Answer 313

thinking about thinking

starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)

Question 314

criticisms of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory

Answer 314

• underestimates children
• too discontinuous

Question 315

information processing model

Answer 315

a continuous alternative of Piaget’s stage theory

Question 316

Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 316

• experimented on children regarding moral development using the Heinz dilemma
• created three broad categories of responses: preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Question 317

Heinz dilemma

Answer 317

stealing a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife’s life

Question 318

preconventional

Answer 318

reasoning limited to how things affect themselves

• don’t steal the drug

Question 319

conventional

Answer 319

choice based on how others will view them

• steal

Question 320

postconventional

Answer 320

examines rights and values involved in choice

• steal

Question 321

Criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg

Answer 321

Carol Gilligan noted that his research was based on boys, her research showed that boys and girls had different moral attitudes, but was later disproved

However, her criticism brought attention to how possible gender differences may change how we develop

Question 322

biopsychological (neuropsychological) theory of gender development

Answer 322

studies demonstrate that biological differences do exist between the sexes

women have larger corpus callosums, which may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks

Question 323

psychodynamic theory of gender development

Answer 323

gender development is a competition for your opposite sex parent, when you realize you can’t win, you imitate your same-sex parent

difficult to verify this idea

Question 324

social-cognitive theory of gender development

Answer 324

effects of society and thoughs about gender on role development

gender-schema- messages about gender are internalized into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave

Question 325

motivations

Answer 325

feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal

Question 326

Drive Reduction Theory

Answer 326

behavior is motivated by biological needs

does not explain all behaviors, such as adrenaline addicts

Question 327

need

Answer 327

one of our requirements for survival

Question 328

drive

Answer 328

an impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need

Question 329

homeostasis

Answer 329

a balanced internal state

Question 330

primary drives

Answer 330

biological needs

Question 331

secondary drives

Answer 331

learned drives

Question 332

arousal theory

Answer 332

motivated by the need for an optimum level of excitement or arousal

performance is best at optimum levels of arousal, depending on how difficult the task is (Yerkes-Dodson law)

Question 333

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 333

relationship between performance and arousal that states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point

Question 334

Incentive Theory

Answer 334

behavior is not pushed by a need, but by a desire (incentive)

Question 335

incentive

Answer 335

stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning

Question 336

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 336

basic needs are fulfilled before other needs

physiological (hunger, thirst, sex)

safety (safe, secure, out of danger)

belongingness and love

esteem (approval and recognition)

self-actualization (fulfill unique potential

Question 337

lateral hypothalamus

Answer 337

causes animal to eat when stimulated

Question 338

ventromedial hypothalamus

Answer 338

causes animal to feel full when stimulated

Question 339

set-point theory

Answer 339

the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight

Question 340

hunger motivation

Answer 340

stomach feels full –> we feel full (balloon experiment)

Question 341

metabolic rate

Answer 341

how quickly body uses energy

Question 342

externals

Answer 342

people who are motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness or availability

Question 343

internals

Answer 343

people who are more motivated to eat by internal hunger cues (empty stomach)

Question 344

Garcia effect

Answer 344

taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future

Question 345

bulimia

Answer 345

has two phases: binging and purging

mostly women

Question 346

binging

Answer 346

eating large amounts of food in a short amount of time

Question 347

purging

Answer 347

getting rid of food through vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.

Question 348

anorexia nervosa

Answer 348

starving yourself to below 85% of normal body weight: vast majority are women

Question 349

obesity

Answer 349

severely overweight, unhealthy eating habits, some are genetically predisposed

Question 350

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Answer 350

Sexual Response Cycle

Question 351

Sexual Response Cycle

Answer 351

created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson

1. initial excitement
2. plateau phase
3. orgasm
4. resolution

Question 352

initial excitement (Sexual Response Cycle)

Answer 352

genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase

Question 353

plateau phase (Sexual Response Cycle)

Answer 353

respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus

Question 354

orgasm (Sexual Response Cycle)

Answer 354

rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria

Question 355

resolution (Sexual Response Cycle)

Answer 355

respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period- a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately

Question 356

achievement motivation

Answer 356

desire to master complex tasks and knowledge, desire to reach personal goals, desire to figure out world

regardless of benefits

Question 357

extrinsic motivators

Answer 357

rewards received for accomplishments that are outside ourselves

very effective for a short amount of time

Question 358

intrinsic motivators

Answer 358

rewards we get internally

most effective at continuing a behavior

Question 359

Management Theory

Answer 359

consists of theory x: (legalism) people will only work for benefits or threatened with punishments
and theory y:employees are internally motivated to do good work
has more benefits

Question 360

approach-approach conflict

Answer 360

decision between two favorable outcomes

Question 361

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Answer 361

decision between two unfavorable outcomes

Question 362

approach-avoidance conflict

Answer 362

one event/goal has both good and bad outcomes

Question 363

James-Lange theory

Answer 363

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Question 364

Cannon-Bard theory

Answer 364

theory of emotion that the body changes and understanding of the emotion occurs simultaneously from cues in the thalamus

• inaccurate about the thalamus playing such a big role, other structures such as the amygdala are involved

Question 365

Two Factor Theory

Answer 365

Stanley Schacter

• better than James-Lange and Cannon-Bard
• both physical responses and cognitive labels combine to cause emotion
• experiment showed that aroused people felt emotions more intensely than not aroused people

Question 366

Stanley Schacter

Answer 366

created Two Factor Theory

Question 367

stressors

Answer 367

stressful life events

Question 368

stress reactions

Answer 368

reactions to stressors

Question 369

social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)

Answer 369

designed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe

measures stress using life-change units (LCUs)

regardless of posiive or negative, events may have the same LCU count

shows correlation between stress and disease

Question 370

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Answer 370

created by Hans Seyle

describes the general response animals have to a stressful event

1. alarm reaction
2. resistance
3. exhaustion

Question 371

What happens physically in the alarm reaction GAS

Answer 371

heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other body functions to muscles needed to react, activates the sympathetic nervous system

Question 372

resistance (GAS)

Answer 372

hormones are released t maintain physiological readiness described in alarm reaction, if it lasts too long, can deplete resources

Question 373

exhaustion (GAS)

Answer 373

parasympathetic nervous system returns body back to normal, more vulnerable to disease especially if resources were depleted

Question 374

three-box/information-processing model

Answer 374

sensory, encoding, short-term/working, long-term and retrieval

Question 375

George Sperling

Answer 375

demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a second

also: iconic memory

Question 376

sensory memory

Answer 376

a split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information

Question 377

iconic memory

Answer 377

a split-second perfect photograph of a scene

Question 378

echoic memory

Answer 378

a split-second perfect memory of a sound

Question 379

selective attention

Answer 379

determines what is encoded from sensory memory to short-term memory

Question 380

short-term (working) memory

Answer 380

memories currently using and are aware of in consciousness

• short-term memories will fade in 10 to 30 seconds if mused
• capacity is limited to about 7 items

Question 381

chunking

Answer 381

grouping items in about 7

memory tool

Question 382

mnemonic aids

Answer 382

memory aids

memory tool

Question 383

rehearse

Answer 383

repeat

memory tool

Question 384

long-term memory

Answer 384

permanent storage

Question 385

episodic memory

Answer 385

memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events

Question 386

semantic memory

Answer 386

general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially

Question 387

procedural memory

Answer 387

memories of skills and how to perform them

Question 388

explicit (declarative) memory

Answer 388

conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember

Question 389

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Answer 389

unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have

Question 390

eidetic (photographic) memory

Answer 390

the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure

Question 391

Alexandra Luria

Answer 391

studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later

Question 392

levels of processing model

Answer 392

• long/short-term memory doesn’t exist
• instead, deeply (elaboratively) or shallowly (maintenance) memory

Question 393

retrieval

Answer 393

two types of retrieval: recognition and recall

Question 394

recognition

Answer 394

the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory

Question 395

recall

Answer 395

retrieving a memory with an external cue

Question 396

primacy effect

Answer 396

predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list

compare: recency effect

Question 397

recency effect

Answer 397

predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list

compare: primacy effect

Question 398

serial position effect (curve)

Answer 398

when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a list

primacy effect and recency effect

Question 399

tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon

Answer 399

condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory

Question 400

semantic network theory

Answer 400

memories are linked to one another like spiderwebs

Question 401

flashbulb memory

Answer 401

highly detailed memory of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising news is heard

Question 402

state-dependent memory

Answer 402

recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness, like sleepiness

Question 403

mood congruent memory

Answer 403

the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened

Question 404

Elizabeth Loftus

Answer 404

showed that recovered memories could be constructed or false recollections of events

Question 405

constructed memory

Answer 405

may report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occured

Question 406

decay

Answer 406

not using a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time

Question 407

relearning

Answer 407

after learning and forgetting, learning again becomes faster

Question 408

interference

Answer 408

other information competes with what you’re trying to recall

two types: retroactive and proactive

Question 409

retroactive interference

Answer 409

learning new information interferes with the recall of older information

compare: proactive interference

Question 410

proactive interference

Answer 410

old information interferes with the recall of newer information

compare: retroactive interference

Question 411

anterograde amnesia

Answer 411

old memories can be recalled, new memories (except procedural) cannot be made

Question 412

long-term potention

Answer 412

repeated firings between neurons strengthen the connection between them

Question 413

phonemes

Answer 413

the smallest units of sound used in a language

compare: morphemes

Question 414

morphemes

Answer 414

the smallest unit of meaningful sound

compare: phonemes

Question 415

language acquisition

Answer 415

natural unconscious process of language development in humans that occurs without instruction, but needs exposure

1. babbling 2. telegraphic

Question 416

language acquisition theory

Answer 416

the ability to learn a language rapidly as children

Question 417

Noam Chomsky

Answer 417

language acquisition device

also called nativist theory of language acquisition

Question 418

language acquisition device

Answer 418

the ability to learn a language quickly as children

also called nativist theory of language acquisition

Question 419

babbling stage

Answer 419

innate, represents a baby’s experimentation with phonemes

after this stage, the baby loses the phonemes unused in the primary language

Question 420

telegraphic

Answer 420

second stage in language acquisition

combination of the words into simple commands and sentences; meaning clear, syntax absent

Question 421

overgeneralization

Answer 421

misapplication of grammar rules

Question 422

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Answer 422

Benjamin Whorf

language may control or limit our thinking

• studies show effect of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas, but do not show that language changes what we can think about

Question 423

prototype

Answer 423

Preconceived notion of what something is supposed to look like. what concepts are based on, the most typical example of a particular concept

Question 424

image

Answer 424

mental pictures created in mind, not necessarily visual

Question 425

algorithm

Answer 425

a problem solving technique that guarantees the correct solution by trying every possibility

Question 426

heuristic

Answer 426

a rule of thumb, generally but not always true

types: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic

affected by: belief bias and belief perseverance

Question 427

availability heuristic

Answer 427

judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially

Question 428

representativeness heuristic

Answer 428

judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind

Question 429

belief bias

Answer 429

illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs

Question 430

belief perseverance

Answer 430

tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted

compare: confirmation bias

Question 431

rigidity (mental set)

Answer 431

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

Question 432

functional fixedness

Answer 432

an example of rigidity

the inability to see a new use for an object

Question 433

confirmation bias

Answer 433

the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true

compare: belief perseverence

Question 434

framing

Answer 434

the way a problem is presented

Question 435

creativity

Answer 435

original/novel but still fits the situation

Question 436

convergent thinking

Answer 436

thinking pointed toward one solution

Question 437

divergent thinking

Answer 437

thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question

associated with creativity

Question 438

classical conditioning

Answer 438

people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one

compare: operant conditioning

Question 439

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 439

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

Question 440

neutral stimulus

Answer 440

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Question 441

conditioned response

Answer 441

an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus

Question 442

acquisition

Answer 442

the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge

Question 443

delayed conditioning

Answer 443

ideal training - neutral stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, briefly overlaps.

Question 444

trace conditioning

Answer 444

the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US

Question 445

simultaneous conditioning

Answer 445

neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus paired together at the same time.

Question 446

backward conditioning

Answer 446

least effective- occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus

Question 447

extinction

Answer 447

the process of unlearning a behavior

Question 448

spontaneous recovery

Answer 448

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Question 449

generalization

Answer 449

transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus

Question 450

discriminate

Answer 450

distinguish between various stimuli

Question 451

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner’s experiment

Answer 451

taught little boy Albert to fear a white rat

Question 452

aversive conditioning

Answer 452

conditioning to avoid an aversive stimulus

Question 453

higher-order conditioning

Answer 453

a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.

Question 454

learned taste aversions

Answer 454

If you ingest an unusual food/drink and become nauseous, an aversion to that food/drink will develop (can be based on a single pairing, as opposed to repeated)

Question 455

salient

Answer 455

having a quality that thrusts itself into attention

Question 456

Garcia and Koelling’s experiment

Answer 456

experiment showing how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others

Question 457

operant conditioning

Answer 457

type of learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behaviors

compare: classical conditioning

Question 458

Edward Thorndike and his experiment

Answer 458

one of the first people to research operant conditioning

Placed cat in a puzzle box next to food; cat gradually became quicker at getting to the food

Question 459

law of effect

Answer 459

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Question 460

instrumental learning

Answer 460

what Throndike called his work because he believed consequences were instrumental in shaping future behaviors

Question 461

B.F. Skinner

Answer 461

created the term “operant conditioning”

created Skinner box

Question 462

Skinner box

Answer 462

Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response

Question 463

reinforcement

Answer 463

anything that makes a behavior more likely

compare: punishment

Question 464

positive reinforcement

Answer 464

the addition of something pleasant

Question 465

negative reinforcement

Answer 465

the removal of something unpleasant

Question 466

punishment

Answer 466

anything that makes a behavior less likely

compare: reinforcement

Question 467

positive punishment

Answer 467

the addition of something unpleasant

Question 468

omission training/negative punishment

Answer 468

the removal of something pleasant

Question 469

escape learning

Answer 469

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation

Question 470

avoidance learning

Answer 470

learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes

Question 471

shaping

Answer 471

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 472

chaining

Answer 472

in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action

Question 473

discriminative stimulus

Answer 473

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Question 474

primary reinforcer

Answer 474

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Question 475

secondary reinforcer

Answer 475

stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer

Question 476

generalized reinforcer

Answer 476

secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers

example: money

Question 477

token economy

Answer 477

An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

Question 478

Premack principle

Answer 478

principle that a less frequently performed behavior can be increased in frequency by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior

Question 479

continuous reinforcement

Answer 479

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Question 480

partial-reinforcement effect

Answer 480

a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule

Question 481

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 481

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 482

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 482

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 483

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 483

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 484

variable-interval schedule

Answer 484

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Question 485

instinctive drift

Answer 485

The tendency for an animal’s innate responses to interfere with conditioning processes.

Question 486

contiguity model

Answer 486

a model that the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place

Question 487

contingency model

Answer 487

Robert Rescorla’s revision of the contiguity model; the more times the presence of one predicts the other, the greater the learning that will take place

Question 488

observational learning/modeling

Answer 488

studied by Albert Bandura

learning through observation and imitation

Question 489

latent learning

Answer 489

studied by Edward Tolman

sometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced

Question 490

Edward Tolman

Answer 490

researched latent learning

conducted experiment on three groups of rats running through a maze

Question 491

abstract learning

Answer 491

Understanding concepts rather than learning to simply press a bar or peck a disk in order to receive a reward

Question 492

insight learning

Answer 492

studied by Wolfgang Kohler

when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem

Question 493

Wolfgang Kohler

Answer 493

studied insight learning

observed chimpanzees suddenly learn how to get a banana

Question 494

equipotentiality

Answer 494

any animal can be conditioned to do anything

opposite to instinctive drift

Question 495

preparedness

Answer 495

biological predisposition to learn some things more quickly than others

Question 496

dualism

Answer 496

the universe, including humans, is made up of thought and matter (matter- everything that has substance)

Question 497

monism

Answer 497

everything is part of the same substance

Question 498

consciousness

Answer 498

level of awareness

Question 499

mere-exposure effect

Answer 499

old stimuli are preferred over new stimuli, because on some level the old stimuli are remembered and known

Question 500

priming

Answer 500

exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus

Question 501

blind sight

Answer 501

some blind people can respond to visual stimuli because on some level of consciousness is able to “see”

Question 502

conscious

Answer 502

the information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of

Question 503

nonconscious

Answer 503

body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually aware of

Question 504

preconscious

Answer 504

information abut yourself or your environment that you are not currently thinking about, but could be

Question 505

subconscious

Answer 505

information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior like priming and mere-exposure

Question 506

unconscious

Answer 506

psychoanalyst idea– some unacceptable events and feelings are repressed from conscious mind to unconscious

difficult to prove

Question 507

circadian rhythm

Answer 507

a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms

Question 508

sleep onset

Answer 508

the stage between wakefulness and sleep

Question 509

alpha waves

Answer 509

relatively high-frequency, low amplitude waves produced while awake and in stages 1 and 2

Question 510

sleep spindles

Answer 510

short bursts of rapid brain waves that start to appear in stage 2 sleep

Question 511

delta sleep/slow-wave sleep

Answer 511

stages 3 and 4’s other names due to the delta waves that exist during these stages

replenishes the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children and fortifying the immune system

Question 512

rapid eye movement (REM) (paradoxical sleep)

Answer 512

period of intense brain activity, eyes dart back and forth, many muscles twitch repeatedly, dreams

occurs when going from delta sleep back to stage 1 sleep

lack of REM sleep –> memory issues

more stress –> more REM sleep

Question 513

REM rebound

Answer 513

individuals deprived of REM sleep will experience more and longer periods of REM sleep the next time they are allowed to sleep normally

Question 514

insomnia

Answer 514

problems getting to sleep/staying asleep at night

affects up to 10% of people

Question 515

treatment of insomnia

Answer 515

treated with changes of behavior:

• reduction of caffeine/ other stimulants
• exercise at appropriate times

Question 516

narcolepsy

Answer 516

periods of intense sleepiness and falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times

affects less than 0.001% of people

Question 517

treatment of narcolepsy

Answer 517

treated with medication and changing sleep patterns (naps at certain times of the day)

Question 518

sleep apnea

Answer 518

when a person stops breathing for short periods of time during the night

• robs the person of deep sleep
• causes attention and memory problems
• treated with respiration machine

Question 519

night terrors

Answer 519

feelings of terror or dread usually affecting children

occurs during stage 4 sleep

Question 520

somnambulism

Answer 520

sleep walking usually occurring in children

occurs during stage 4 sleep

Question 521

manifest content

Answer 521

literal content of dreams

compare: latent content

Question 522

latent content

Answer 522

the unconscious meaning of the manifest content

compare: manifest content

Question 523

protected sleep

Answer 523

ego protects us from unconscious by representing everything in symbols

Question 524

activation-synthesis theory

Answer 524

dreams are interpretations of physiological things and have no meaning

Question 525

information-processing theory

Answer 525

more stress causes more dreams about your stress, dream content relates to daily concerns. The brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams and the function of REM may be to integrate information processed during the day into our memories

Question 526

posthypnotic amnesia

Answer 526

people forget events that occurred during hypnosis

Question 527

posthypnotic suggestion

Answer 527

a suggestion that a hypnotized person have a certain way after hypnosis

Question 528

role theory

Answer 528

hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness; hypnotized people are just filling out the “role” of a hypnotized person

Question 529

hypnotic suggestibility

Answer 529

some people are more easily hypnotized than others

richer fantasy life, follow directions well, and able to focus intensely on a single task for a long period of time

Question 530

state theory

Answer 530

theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness

Question 531

dissociation theory

Answer 531

created by Ernest Hilgard

hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part stays tuned to reality, another part to the hypnotist

Question 532

Ernest Hilgard

Answer 532

dissociation theory

Question 533

psychoactive drugs

Answer 533

chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness

Question 534

blood-brain barrier

Answer 534

thick walls surrounding the brain’s blood vessels that protect the brain from harmful chemicals

Question 535

agonist

Answer 535

drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

Question 536

antagonists

Answer 536

drugs that block neurotransmitters

Question 537

tolerance

Answer 537

a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect

compare: reverse tolerance

Question 538

reverse tolerance

Answer 538

the first dose lingers in the body and enhances the effect of the second dose although it may be smaller

compare: tolerance

Question 539

depressants

Answer 539

drugs that slow down body processes

examples: alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs ex: Valium)

Question 540

effects of alcohol

Answer 540

slowed down reactions and judgment, impaired motor coordination

Question 541

stimulants

Answer 541

drugs that speed up body processes

Question 542

examples of stimulants

Answer 542

caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine

Question 543

side effects of stimulants

Answer 543

disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems

Question 544

hallucinogens/psychedelics

Answer 544

drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasies

stay in body for a long time

effects are less predictable

Question 545

examples of hallucinogens/psychedelics

Answer 545

LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marajuana

Question 546

opiates

Answer 546

drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and reduce pain and elevate mood

Question 547

examples of opiates

Answer 547

morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine

Question 548

side effects of opiates

Answer 548

drowsiness, euphoria, physically addictive because they change brain chemistry quickly

Question 549

transduction

Answer 549

the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses

Question 550

cocktail-party phenomenon

Answer 550

when your attention involuntarily switches (someone calls your name)

Question 551

cornea

Answer 551

a protective covering of the eye

Question 552

pupil

Answer 552

dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye

Question 553

lens

Answer 553

curved and flexible in order to focus the light

Question 554

retina

Answer 554

a screen on the back of your eye

Question 555

cones

Answer 555

cells activated by color

compare: rods

Question 556

rods

Answer 556

cells that respond to black and white

outnumber cones 20:1

compare: cones

Question 557

fovea

Answer 557

located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones

Question 558

ganglion cells

Answer 558

their axons make up the optic nerve that sends visual impulses to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus

Question 559

lateral geniculate nucleus

Answer 559

a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve

Question 560

blind spot

Answer 560

where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones

Question 561

optic chasm

Answer 561

optic the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain

Question 562

feature detectors

Answer 562

discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Question 563

trichromatic theory

Answer 563

there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrum

does not explain afterimages and color blindness

Question 564

afterimage

Answer 564

an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased

Question 565

opponent-process theory

Answer 565

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Question 566

amplitude

Answer 566

the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels

Question 567

frequency

Answer 567

the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz

Question 568

order of sound in your ear

Answer 568

ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail’s shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve

Question 569

place theory

Answer 569

hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea

Question 570

frequency theory

Answer 570

place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequency

hair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea

Question 571

conduction deafness

Answer 571

something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea

Question 572

nerve (sensorineural) deafness

Answer 572

when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise

Question 573

gate-control theory

Answer 573

when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt

Question 574

papillae

Answer 574

the bumps on your tongue

Question 575

olfactory bulb

Answer 575

one of two enlargements at the terminus of the olfactory nerve at the base of the brain just above the nasal cavities

Question 576

vestibular sense

Answer 576

how our body is oriented in space

Question 577

kinesthetic sense

Answer 577

the position and orientation of specific body parts

Question 578

absolute threshold

Answer 578

the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect

Question 579

subliminal

Answer 579

stimuli below absolute threshold

Question 580

difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)

Answer 580

the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a change

computed by Weber’s law

Question 581

Weber’s law

Answer 581

the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

Question 582

signal detection theory

Answer 582

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation (“noise”). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

Question 583

response criteria (receiver operating characteristics)

Answer 583

how motivated people are to detect certain stimuli and expectations for what they want to perceive

Question 584

false positive

Answer 584

when we think we perceive a stimulus that is not there

Question 585

a false negative

Answer 585

not perceiving a stimulus that is present

Question 586

top-down processing

Answer 586

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions

drawing on our experience and expectations

compare: bottom-up processing

Question 587

schemata

Answer 587

mental representations of how we expect the world to be

Question 588

perceptual set

Answer 588

a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way

Question 589

backmasking

Answer 589

supposed hidden messages musicians recorded backward in their music

Question 590

bottom-up processing (feature analysis)

Answer 590

we use only the features of the object itself to perceive it

compare: top-down processing

Question 591

figure-ground relationship

Answer 591

A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.

Question 592

constancy

Answer 592

the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance

Question 593

visual cliff experiment

Answer 593

created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth

Question 594

Muller-Lyer illusion

Answer 594

demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture

both lines are the same length, but one is perceived to be longer

Question 595

Weber’s law for sight

Answer 595

constant for vision: 8%

Question 596

Weber’s law for hearing

Answer 596

constant for hearing: 5%

Question 597

Stroboscopic Effect

Answer 597

A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession

Ex: book flip image thing

Question 598

Phi Phenomenon

Answer 598

The perception of movement as a result of sequential presentation of visual stimuli

Ex: Lights on/off= moving

Question 599

Autokinetic Effect

Answer 599

The tendency to perceive a stationary point of light in a dark room as moving

Question 600

Monocular Cues

Answer 600

Not dependent on two eyes

Question 601

Binocular Cues

Answer 601

Depend on two eyes

Binocular Disparity: Both eyes see objects with slightly different angles, brain gets both images. Closer= similar image; Farther= more disparity between two images viewed

Convergence: Eyes move closer to each other to keep focus as object gets closer to our face

Question 602

neuroanatomy

Answer 602

the study of the parts and function of neurons

Question 603

neurons

Answer 603

individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system

Question 604

dendrites

Answer 604

rootlike parts of the nerve cell that stretch out from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons

Question 605

cell body (soma)

Answer 605

contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life

Question 606

axon

Answer 606

wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body

Question 607

myelin sheath

Answer 607

a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses

Question 608

terminal buttons

Answer 608

also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs

the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter

Question 609

neurotransmitters

Answer 609

chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate

Question 610

synapse

Answer 610

the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons

Question 611

action potential

Answer 611

the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted

Question 612

function of acetylcholine

Answer 612

motor movement

Question 613

lack of acetylcholine

Answer 613

Alzheimer’s disease

Question 614

function of dopamine

Answer 614

motor movement and alertness

Question 615

what is parkisons causes by

Answer 615

lack of dopamine

Question 616

overabundance of dopamine

Answer 616

schizophrenia

Question 617

function of endorphins

Answer 617

pain control; involved in addictions

Question 618

function of serotonin

Answer 618

mood control

Question 619

lack of serotonin

Answer 619

associated with clinical depression

Question 620

afferent neurons

Answer 620

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain

Question 621

interneurons

Answer 621

in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord

Question 622

efferent neurons

Answer 622

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body

Question 623

Central Nervous System

Answer 623

consists of the brain and spinal cord; nerves encased in bone

compare: Peripheral Nervous System

Question 624

Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 624

consists of nerves not encased in bone

Divided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous system

compare: Central Nervous System

Question 625

Somatic Nervous System

Answer 625

controls voluntary muscle movements

compare: Autonomic Nervous System

Question 626

Autonomic Nervous System

Answer 626

controls the automatic functions of our body

divided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

compare: Somatic Nervous System

Question 627

Sympathetic Nervous System

Answer 627

part of the Autonomic Nervous System

mobilizes our body to respond to stress

compare: Parasympathetic Nervous System

Question 628

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Answer 628

part of the Autonomic Nervous System

slowing body down after a stress response

compare: Sympathetic Nervous System

Question 629

Phineas Gage

Answer 629

a railroad worker involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain

Question 630

lesioning

Answer 630

the removal or destruction of part of the brain

example: frontal lobotomy

Question 631

frontal lobotomy

Answer 631

type of lesioining that was used to treat mentally ill patiens

Question 632

electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 632

detects brain waves, used in sleep research

Question 633

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

Answer 633

a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain

Question 634

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Answer 634

a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain

Question 635

Portion Emission Tomography (PET)

Answer 635

measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using

Question 636

Functional MRI

Answer 636

combination of MRI and PET

Question 637

hindbrain

Answer 637

structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive

Question 638

medulla

Answer 638

part of hindbrain

controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

Question 639

pons

Answer 639

part of hindbrain

connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, involved in the control of facial expressions

Question 640

cerebellum

Answer 640

part of hindbrain

looks like smaller version of brain stuck onto the underside of brain, coordinates fine muscle movements

Question 641

midbrain

Answer 641

coordinates simple movements with sensory information

contains reticular formation

Question 642

reticular formation

Answer 642

a netlike collection of cells throughout the hindbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attention

if it does not function, you will fall into a coma

Question 643

forebrain

Answer 643

controls thought and reason

contains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus

Question 644

thalamus

Answer 644

part of forebrain

located at top of brain stem

receives sensory signals from spinal cord and sends hem to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain

Question 645

hypothalamus

Answer 645

part of forebrain

controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system

Question 646

amygdala and hippocampus

Answer 646

hippocampus- arms surrounding the thalamus

amygdala- structures near the end of each hippocampal arm

involved in processing and perceiving memory and emotion

Question 647

limbic system

Answer 647

made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus

deal with aspects of emotion and memory

Question 648

fissures

Answer 648

wrinkles in the cerebral cortex

Question 649

contralateral control

Answer 649

each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Question 650

brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization

Answer 650

specialization of function in each hemisphere

Question 651

corpus callosum

Answer 651

the nerve bundle that connects the two hempisheres; cut in split-brain patients

Question 652

split-brain patients

Answer 652

patients whose corpus callosums have been cut

Question 653

association area

Answer 653

any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements

Question 654

frontal lobes

Answer 654

part of the cerebral cortex

responsible for abstract thought and emotional control

contains: Broca’s area and motor cortex

Question 655

Broca’s area

Answer 655

in the frontal lobe

responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech

Question 656

motor cortex

Answer 656

in the frontal lobe

sends signals to muscles, controlling voluntary movements

bottom of cortex controls top of body and vice versa

Question 657

parietal lobes

Answer 657

contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)

Question 658

sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)

Answer 658

receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body

bottom of sensory cortex receives sensations from top of body and vice versa

Question 659

occipital lobes

Answer 659

at the very back of the brain

impulses from the right half of each retina is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa

Question 660

temporal lobes

Answer 660

unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobes

contains Wernicke’s area

Question 661

Wernicke’s area

Answer 661

located in temporal lobe

interprets both written and spoken speech

Question 662

brain plasticity

Answer 662

the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.

Question 663

adrenal glands

Answer 663

produce adrenaline, which causes rest of body to go into fight or flight mode

Question 664

Thomas Bouchard

Answer 664

conducted study on identical twins that found a correlation of 0.69 on IQ, criticized because their similar appearances may have led to their being treated similarly

Question 665

Turner’s syndrome

Answer 665

only one X chromosome in the 23rd pair

shortness, webbed necks

Question 666

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 666

extra X chromosome

minimal sexual development and personality traits like extreme introversion

Question 667

Down’s syndrome

Answer 667

extra chromosome on the 21st pair

rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, different extents of mental retardation

Question 668

applied research

Answer 668

research with clear, practical applications

compare: basic research

Question 669

basic research

Answer 669

research that explores questions that are of interest of psychologists that are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications

compare: applied research

Question 670

valid

Answer 670

measures what it’s supposed to measure; accurate

compare: reliable

Question 671

reliable

Answer 671

can be replicated, consistent

compare: valid

Question 672

hypothesis

Answer 672

a relationship between two variables

Question 673

variables

Answer 673

things that vary among the participants in the research

Question 674

dependent variable

Answer 674

depends on the independent variable

Question 675

theory

Answer 675

an explanation of some phenomenon, allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses

Question 676

operationalize

Answer 676

to explain how you will measure a variable

Question 677

subjects

Answer 677

the participants in research

Question 678

sampling

Answer 678

the process by which subjects are selected

Question 679

sample

Answer 679

group of subjects; should be representative of a larger population

Question 680

population

Answer 680

anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample

Question 681

random selection

Answer 681

randomly selecting the sample group, increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population

Question 682

stratified sampling

Answer 682

randomly sampling each strata (category of people, for example race or gender) of the population, so that the final sample reflects the population more accurately

Question 683

laboratory experiment

Answer 683

conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment

Question 684

field experiment

Answer 684

conducted in the world, more realistic than laboratory experiment

compare: laboratory experiment

Question 685

experiment

Answer 685

only experiments can show cause and effect relationships through the manipulation of the independent variable and subsequent observation of the dependent variable while controlling for confounding variables

Question 686

confounding variable

Answer 686

any difference between the experimental and control conditions, besides the changes of the independent variable

Question 687

assignment

Answer 687

the process by which subjects are put into a group, experimental or control

Question 688

random assignment

Answer 688

each subject has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or the control group

controls subject-relevant confounding variables

compare: random selection

Question 689

group matching

Answer 689

half of each condition (for example, male or female) is assigned to each group (experimental or control)

compare: stratified sampling

Question 690

situation-relevant confounding variables

Answer 690

differences between the experimental and control situations that may affect the experiment

equivalent environments control for situation-relevant confounding variables

Question 691

experimenter bias

Answer 691

the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypotheses

Question 692

double-blind procedure

Answer 692

neither the subjects nor the researcher are able to affect the outcome of the research

minimizes the effect of demand characteristics and some kind of response/subject bias

compare: single-blind procedure

Question 693

single-blind procedure

Answer 693

only the subjects do not know which group they’re in

minimizes the effect of demand characteristics and some kind of response/subject bias

compare: double-blind procedure

Question 694

demand characteristics

Answer 694

cues about the purpose of the study

Question 695

response/subject bias

Answer 695

when subjects behave in ways they think the observer wants them to behave

social desirability (desire to act or answer questions in a way that others will like) is a type of this

Question 696

Hawthorne effect

Answer 696

selecting a group of people on whom to experiment will affect the performance of hat group, regardless of what is done to the individuals

Question 697

placebo effect

Answer 697

the purely psychological effects of thinking you took a drug when you really didn’t

Question 698

counterbalancing

Answer 698

using subjects as their own control group by having half of them be experimental first and half of them be control first

Question 699

order effect

Answer 699

the order of the experimental/control group activities may affect the results

Question 700

correlation

Answer 700

a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause

Question 701

ex post facto study

Answer 701

research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition; all other variables are controlled

Question 702

survey method

Answer 702

kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables

Question 703

naturalistic observation

Answer 703

unobtrusive observation on subjects in their natural habitats, control is sacrificed

compare: field experiment

Question 704

case study

Answer 704

a full, detailed picture of one subject or a small group of subjects; not reflective of population, as a result findings cannot be generalized

Question 705

descriptive statistics

Answer 705

describe a set of data

compare: inferential statistics

Question 706

frequency distribution

Answer 706

a distribution of observed frequencies of occurrence of the values of a variable

Question 707

frequency polygon

Answer 707

line graph

Question 708

histogram

Answer 708

bar graph

Question 709

measures of central tendency

Answer 709

attempt to mark the center of a distribution

consists of mean, median, mode

compare: measures of variability

Question 710

mean

Answer 710

the average of all the scores in a distribution

most commonly used measure of central tendency

when distorted by extreme scores or outliers, median should be used

compare: median, mode

Question 711

median

Answer 711

the middle score of a distribution when written in ascending or descending order

compare: mode, mean

Question 712

mode

Answer 712

the score that appears most frequently

compare: median, mean

Question 713

positively skewed

Answer 713

when a distribution has a high outlier, there are more low scores than high scores due to the outlier

mean is higher than median

compare: negatively skewed

Question 714

negatively skewed

Answer 714

when a distribution has a low outlier, there are more high scores than low scores due to the outlier

mean is lower than median

compare: positively skewed

Question 715

measures of variability

Answer 715

attempt to depict the diversity of the distribution

consists of range, variance, standard deviation

compare: measures of central tendency

Question 716

variance

Answer 716

the average of the squared differences of each number from the mean

compare: standard deviation, range

Question 717

standard deviation

Answer 717

the square root of the variance

compare: variance, range

Question 718

range

Answer 718

the distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution

compare: variance, standard deviation

Question 719

z score

Answer 719

the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation

negative z scores are below the mean

positive z scores and above the mean

Question 720

normal curve

Answer 720

theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve lying between any two z scores has been predetermined

memorize the normal distribution chart

Question 721

percentile

Answer 721

the distance of a score from 0

nth percentile means you scored better than n percent of the people taking the test

Question 722

correlation coefficient

Answer 722

range from -1 and +1

0 is the weakest correlation– no correlation

Question 723

scatter plot

Answer 723

a series of points plotted on a graph

the closer the points come to a line, the stronger the correlation

Question 724

line of best fit

Answer 724

the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line

Question 725

inferential statistics

Answer 725

determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected; making sure the results are not due to sampling error and chance

t-tests, ANOVAs, MANOVAs are types of inferential statistical tests

compare: descriptive statistics

Question 726

sampling error

Answer 726

the extent to which a sample differs from the population

Question 727

p value

Answer 727

the percent chance that the findings were due to chance

.05 (5% chance) is the cut off for statistically significant results

p value of 0 cannot exist

Question 728

institutional review board

Answer 728

reviews research proposal for ethical violations and/or procedural errors

Question 729

informed consent

Answer 729

participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent

Question 730

coercion

Answer 730

participation must be voluntary

Question 731

anonymity/confidentiality

Answer 731

both protect privacy

anonymity- no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person

confidentiality- the source of any data will not be revealed

Question 732

risk

Answer 732

participants cannot be placed in significant mental or physical risk

Question 733

debriefing procedures

Answer 733

participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about study results

Question 734

introspection

Answer 734

the purposeful and rational self-observation of one’s mental state; first wave of psychology

Question 735

trephination

Answer 735

a operation used by Stone Age humans that removes a circular section of bone from the skull

Question 736

Wilhelm Wundt

Answer 736

set up the first psychological laboratory, trained subjects in introspection

Question 737

structuralism

Answer 737

the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations

Question 738

William James

Answer 738

published psychology’s first textbook: The Principles of Psychology, created functionalism

Question 739

functionalism

Answer 739

explains how the structures in structuralism function in our lives

Question 740

Gestalt psychology

Answer 740

examined a person’s total experience, not just bits and pieces of it; second wave of psychology

Question 741

Max Wertheimer

Answer 741

a Gestalt psychologist

Question 742

psychoanalysis

Answer 742

human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational drives; third wave of psychology

Question 743

Sigmund Freud

Answer 743

created psychoanalytic theory

Question 744

unconscious mind

Answer 744

a part of the mind that we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave

Question 745

repression

Answer 745

the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them

Question 746

defense mechanism

Answer 746

psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality

Question 747

behaviorism

Answer 747

psychologists should only look at behavior and causes of behavior, not elements of consciousness; fourth wave of psychology; dominant school of thought from the 1920s to 1960s

Question 748

John Watson

Answer 748

studied Ivan Pavlov’s conditioning experiments, main proponent of behaviorism

Question 749

stimuli

Answer 749

environmental events

Question 750

responses

Answer 750

physical reactions

Question 751

B.F. Skinner

Answer 751

behaviorist, expanded the ideas to include reinforcement

Question 752

reinforcement

Answer 752

environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses

Question 753

eclectic

Answer 753

drawing from multiple perspectives of psychology; fifth wave of psychology; most current psychologists are eclectic

Question 754

humanism

Answer 754

stresses individual choice and free will, most of our behaviors are chosen due to physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs

Question 755

Abraham Maslow

Answer 755

Contributed to humanistic psych and hierarchy of needs

Question 756

Carl Rogers

Answer 756

Founder of the humanist approach

Question 757

biopsychology

Answer 757

explains human thought and behavior in terms of biological processes only

Question 758

evolutionary psychologists (sociobiologists)

Answer 758

examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection

Question 759

natural selection

Answer 759

favorable traits for survival will be passed down and preserved

Question 760

cognitive psychologists

Answer 760

examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events

Question 761

social-cultural psychologists

Answer 761

looks at how human thought and behavior varies from culture to culture

Question 762

comparative psychologists

Answer 762

look at the psychology of non-human animals

Question 763

overt behavior

Answer 763

Behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.

Question 764

covert behavior

Answer 764

Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings are covert behaviors.