BARRONS Flashcards

1
Q

social cognition

A

how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

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2
Q

attitude

A

set of beliefs and feelings

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3
Q

mere exposure effect

A

the more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it

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4
Q

LaPiere study

A

discovered that although people had bad attitudes towards Asians, they still treated them well

conclusion: attitude does not necessarily reflect behavior

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5
Q

cognitive dissonance theory

A

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

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6
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith experiment

A

Subjects asked to perform a boring task and then lie to the next subject that it was fun. One group was paid $1 and the other group was paid $20. The group paid $1 said that the boring task was fun, because they didn’t have much of an external motivation to lie.

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7
Q

compliance strategies

A

strategies to get others to comply with your wishes

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8
Q

foot-in-the-door

A

if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger

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9
Q

door-in-the-face

A

after people refuse a large reques, hey will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable

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10
Q

norms of reciprocity

A

if someone does something nice for you, you feel obligated to do something nice for them

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11
Q

attribution theory

A

how people determine the cause of what they observe

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12
Q

dispositional/person attribution

A

personality traits; Charley did well on a math test because he is good at math

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13
Q

situation attribution

A

situational influence; Charley did well on a math test because the test was easy

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14
Q

Harold Kelley

A

put forth a theory that explains the kind of attributions people make based on three kinds of information: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

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15
Q

consistency

A

how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time

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16
Q

distinctiveness

A

how similar this situation is to other situations in which we have watched the individual

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17
Q

consensus

A

how other people acted in the same situation

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18
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

an expectation that causes others to act in ways that make that expectation come true

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19
Q

Rosenthal and Jacobsen’s experiment

A

“Pygmalion in the Classroom”

when teachers expect students to do well and show intellectual growth, they do, example of self-fulling prophecy

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20
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

people in individualist cultures systematically seem to overestimate the role of dispositional factors in influencing another person’s actions

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21
Q

false-consensus effect

A

the tendency of people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them

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22
Q

self-serving bias

A

the tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones

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23
Q

just-world belief

A

misfortunes befall people who deserve them

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24
Q

stereotypes

A

ideas about what members of different groups are like, and these expectations may influence the way we interact with members of these groups

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25
prejudice
an undeserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of people compare: discrimination
26
discrimination
unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice compare: prejudice
27
in-group
people of their own group, seen as more diverse than people of out-groups
28
out-group
people of other groups, seen as more homogeneous than people of in-groups
29
in-group bias
people have a preference for members of their own group
30
contact theory
contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the groups are made to work toward a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all (superordinate goal)
31
superordinate goal
a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all
32
Sherif's camp study
Robbers Cave study divided the campers into two groups and had them compete --> disliked each other had the two groups work together --> improved relations
33
instrumental aggression
aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
34
hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
35
frustration-aggression hypothesis
the feeling of frestration makes aggression more likely
36
Bandura, Ross, and Ross's experiment
Bobo doll experiment aggressive models lead to aggressive children
37
prosocial behavior
behavior in which you help others
38
bystander intervention
the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
39
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
40
pluralistic ignorance
"no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes"
41
similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking
the three factors of physical attractiveness
42
trephination
a operation that removes a circular section of bone from the skull
43
Hippocrates
a Greek philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
44
Galen
a Roman philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
45
deinstitutionalization
1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals in order to save money and benefit the former inpatients
46
Did deinstitutionalization work?
No, because the former patients were unable to care for themselves, ending up homeless and delusional.
47
preventative efforts
psychological problems can be treated proactively, or before they become severe, suffering and cost to client will go down.
48
primary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease
49
secondary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease in people at risk
50
tertiary prevention
methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity
51
psychotherapy
therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client, patient, family, couple, or group
52
somatic treatments
the use of drugs to treat mental illness
53
What kind of psychologists use "patient"?
psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
54
What kind of psychologists use "client"?
therapists other than psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
55
psychoanalysis
a set of techniques developed by Freud for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders
56
symptom substitution
when, after a person is successfully treated for one psychological disorder, that person begins to experience a new psychological problem
57
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness in which psychoanalysts believe that people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts
58
free associate
to say whatever comes to mind without thinking, supposed to bypass the ego's censoring and defenses and go straight into the unconscious where the problems are
59
dream analysis
the patient reports the literal content (manifest content) to the psychoanalyst who interprets it to become what it really means (latent/hidden content)
60
resistance
patient objections to the psychoanalyst's interpretation the psychoanalyst usually sees this as a sign that the analyst is heading in the right direction
61
transference
when patients begin to have strong feelings (negative or positive) toward their therapists the psychoanalyst sees this as a redirection of strong emotions felt toward people with whom they have had troubling relationships onto their therapists
62
psychodynamic theorists
psychologists who are influenced by Freud's work but have significantly modified his original theory
63
insight therapies
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic treatments and humanistic therapies a variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses
64
self-actualization
to reach one's highest potential
65
free will
the ability to choose their own destinies compare: determinism
66
determinism
people have no influence over what happens to them and that their choices are predetermined by forces outside of their control compare: free will
67
Carl Rogers
humanist created client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
68
client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard and active listening
69
unconditional positive regard
blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does humanistic therapists believe that this will help clients accept and take responsibility for themselves
70
non-directive
humanistic therapists do not tell the clients what to do but seek to help the clients choose a course of action for themselves.
71
active listening
empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies part of Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy
72
Gestalt therapy
developed by Fritz Perls an existentialist approach to psychological treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to "own" or take responsibility for them
73
existential therapy
humanistic therapy that focuses on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives
74
counterconditioning
behavioral therapy a kind of classical conditioning developed by Mary Cover Jones in which an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one
75
systematic desensitization
behavioral therapy developed by Joseph Wolpe, a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with imagined, gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli, eventually replacing the feelings of anxiety with relaxation
76
anxiety hierarchy
a rank-ordered list of what the client fears, from least frightening to most frightening
77
in vivo desensitization
behavioral therapy a form of systematic desensitization in which the stimulus is actually encountered
78
implosive therapy
behavioral therapy a type of counterconditioning that has the client imagine the most anxiety inducing thing first, in the hopes that they will realize that their fear is irrational
79
aversive conditioning
behavioral therapy pairing a habit a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus
80
instrumental conditioning
behavioral therapy involves using rewards and/or punishments to modify a person's behavior
81
token economy
behavioral therapy a type of instrumental conditioning desired behaviors are identified and rewarded with tokens that can later be exchanged for various objects or privileges
82
modeling (therapy)
behavioral therapy can be used to treat phobia by having the client observe someone else interact calmly with the anxiety inducing object
83
attributional style
a person's characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life
84
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT or RET)
Cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis. Therapists look to expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of their clients.
85
cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck, usually used in treatment of depression, involves trying to get clients to engage in pursuits that will bring them success
86
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beck people's beliefs about themselves, their worlds, and their futures
87
family therapy
a type of group therapy used to treat families
88
self-help groups
a type of group therapy that does not involve a therapist
89
psychopharmacology/chemotherapy
the use of drugs to treat psychological problems
90
antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics)
block the receptor sites for dopamine, used to treat schizophrenia, may result in tardive dyskinesia examples: Thorazine or Haldol
91
tardive dyskinesia
Parkinsonian-like, chronic muscle tremors
92
lithium
a metal used to treat the manic phase of bipolar disorder
93
drugs used to treat anxiety disorders
barbiturates (Miltown) and benzodiazepines (Xanax and Valium)
94
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
when an electric current is passed through one (unilateral ECT) or both (bilateral ECT) hemispheres of the brain Used to treat major depression and bipolar that is not responsive to other treatments.
95
psychosurgery
the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a person's behavior
96
prefrontal lobotomy
a type of psychosurgery an operation involving the cutting off of the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe of the brain reduced level of functioning and awareness to a vegetative state
97
psychiatrists
medical doctors and are the only therapists permitted to prescribe medication
98
clinical psychologists
psychologists with a Ph. D. and specialize in research, assessment, and therapy
99
counseling psychologists
psychologists with a graduate degree in psychology and treat less severe problems than clinical psychologists do
100
psychoanalysts
people trained specifically in Freudian methods who may or may not hold medical degrees
101
abnormal psychology
the study of people who suffer from psychological disorders
102
abnormality
1. maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual 2. disturbing to others 3. unusual, unshared by many others of the same population 4. irrational, doesn't make sense to the average person
103
insane
a legal term used to describe people who, because of a psychological disorder, cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes NGRI= not guilty by reason of insanity
104
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
a book used by psychologists to determine if someone has a psychological disorder does not include discussion of causes or treatments because different factions of psychology have different ideas about the causes and treatments latest version is the DSM-IV-TR
105
intern's syndrome
the tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders about which one is learning
106
phobia
anxiety disorder an intense, unwarranted fear of a situation or object
107
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
anxiety disorder constant, low-level anxiety
108
panic disorder
anxiety disorder acute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation, panic attacks tend to increase in frequency, people suffer more anxiety from anticipating the attacks
109
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
anxiety disorder when persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action
110
post-traumatic stress disorder
anxiety disorder flashbacks or nightmares following a person's involvement in or an observation of an extremely troubling event, these memories cause anxiety
111
somatoform disorders
when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological problem
112
hypochondriasis
somatoform disorder minor problems are thought to be severe physical illness, frequent physical problems with no apparent cause
113
conversion disorder
somatoform disorder a severe physical problem with no biological cause
114
dissociative disorders
disruptions in conscious processes
115
psychogenic amnesia
dissociative disorder when a person cannot remember things and a physiological basis cannot be found compare: organic amnesia
116
organic amnesia
when a person cannot remember things and there is a biological reason compare: psychogenic amnesia
117
fugue state
dissociative disorder having psychogenic amnesia and finding oneself in an unfamiliar environment
118
dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorder several personalities that may represent different ages and both sexes, people with DID commonly have a history of sexual abuse or some other childhood trauma rare outside of US; DIDers may be role-playing b/c of their therapists' questions and media portrayals
119
major (unipolar) depression
mood or affective disorder unhappiness for more than two weeks without a clear reason other symptoms: loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, feeling of worthlessness linked with low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine
120
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
dissociative disorder depression only during certain times of the year, usually winter
121
bipolar disorder (manic depression)
dissociative disorder depressed and manic (feelings of high energy) episodes linked with more receptors for acetylcholine
122
Aaron Beck
cognitive theorist who believes that the cognitive triad causes depression
123
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beck unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world and their futures failure is attributed to internal, global and stable causes success is attributed to external, specific and unstable causes
124
schizophrenia
disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations
125
delusions
beliefs that have no basis in reality common delusions are persecution and grandeur
126
hallucination
perception without sensory stimulation
127
disorganized schizophrenics
use language oddly with neologisms and/or clang associations also show inappropriate affect and flat affect
128
neologisms
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics made up words
129
clang associations
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics a string of nonsense words that rhyme
130
inappropriate affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics expressing contradictory behavior when describing or experiencing an emotion (e.g., smiling when discussing something sad; laughing when talking about the death of a loved one).
131
flat affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics lack of emotinal reactivity
132
paranoid schizophrenia
schizophrenia characterized by delusions of persecution
133
catatonic schizophrenia
engage in odd movements such as remaining motionless in strange postures for hours at a time, move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason or alternate between the two when motionless, may display waxy flexibility increasingly less common form of schizophrenia in United States
134
waxy flexibility
characteristic of catatonic schizophrenics feature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they are placed by others
135
undifferentiated schizophrenia
exhibit disordered thinking, but none of the other symptoms
136
positive symptoms
excesses in behavior, thought, or mood examples: neologisms, hallucinations compare: negative symptoms
137
negative symptoms
deficits in behavior, thought, or mood examples: flat affect, catatonia compare: positive symptoms
138
dopamine relationship with schizophrenia 
high levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia
139
tardive dyskinesia
muscle tremors and stiffness caused by extensive use of anti psychotic drugs
140
double binds theory
cognitive-behavioral cause for schizophrenia The Double Bind Theory was first articulated in relationship to schizophrenia when Bateson and his colleagues hypothesized that schizophrenic thinking was not necessarily an inborn mental disorder but a pattern of learned helplessness in response to cognitive double-binds externally imposed. contradictory messages compare: double blinds
141
paraphilia
the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual most paraphilias occur more commonly in men than in women, except for masochism
142
fetishism
paraphilia attraction to objects
143
pedophilia
paraphilia abnormal sexual desire in adults for children
144
zoophilia
paraphilia attraction to animals
145
voyeurism
paraphilia someone who becomes sexually aroused by watching others engage in some kind of sexual behavior
146
masochist
paraphilia someone who is aroused by having pain inflicted upon them
147
sadist
paraphilia someone who is aroused by inflicting pain on someone else
148
antisocial personality disorder
little regard for other people's feelings criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder
149
dependent personality disorder
rely too much on the attention and help of others
150
paranoid personality disorder
feeling persecuted, always nervous
151
narcissistic personality disorder
seeing oneself as the center of the universe
152
histronic personality disorder
overly dramatic behavior
153
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
overly concerned with certain thoughts and performing certain behaviors, but not to the point of obsessive compulsive disorder
154
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder loss of 15 percent or more of the average body weight for one's age and size, an intense fear of fat and food, distorted body image
155
bulimia
eating disorder fear of food and fat and a distorted body image consists of a binge-purge cycle (eat a lot, then throw it up or use laxatives to get rid of the food)
156
substance use disorder
regular and negative use of alcohol or other drugs that alter behavior
157
substance dependence
addiction
158
autism
developmental disorder seek less social and emotional contact than other children slow to develop language skills less likely to seek out parental support when distressed
159
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
developmental disorder difficulty paying attention or sitting still, occurs more commonly in boys may be an overdiagnosis of a behavior typical in young boys
160
Rosenhan Study
study in which healthy individuals were admitted into mental hospitals after saying they were hearing voices. Once in, they acted normally and still were not labeled as impostors. raised questions about institutional care levels and the influence of labels
161
standardized
tested on a standardization sample and made to fit norms
162
standardization samples
a group of people representative of the people who normally will take the test
163
reliability
results are consistent; can be duplicated compare: reliability
164
split-half reliability
test is split into two, each half is tested, if the scores are consistent, then the test is reliable (the closer the correlation is to +1, the more reliable)
165
equivalent-form reliability
correlation between performance on different forms of the test
166
test-retest reliability
correlation between a person's score on one administration of the test with the same person's score on a subsequent administration of the test
167
valid
measures what it's supposed to measure, accurate compare: reliability
168
face validity
"if it looks like it works" type of content validity
169
content validity
how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it's supposed to be testing
170
concurrent validity
measures how much of a characteristic a person has now type of criterion-related validity
171
predictive validity
measures future performance type of criterion-related validity
172
construct validity
correlates the new test with another already-proved-to-be-valid test
173
aptitude test
test that measures ability or potential
174
achievement test
test that measures what one has accomplished or learned
175
speed test
large number of questions asked in a short amount of time, insufficient time is given goal: see how fast someone can solve problems compare: power test
176
power test
questions are asked in increasing difficulty level, sufficient time is given goal: see what the ceiling difficulty level is compare: speed test
177
group test
test administered to a large group of people, less expensive, more objective compare: individual test
178
individual test
test administered on a one-on-one basis, more expensive, less objective compare: group test
179
intelligence
the ability to gather and use information in productive ways
180
fluid intelligence
the ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills, seems to decrease over time compare: crystallized intelligence
181
crystallized intelligence
the ability to use knowledge accumulated over time, seems to stay the same or increase over time compare: fluid intelligence
182
Charles Spearman
intelligence theorist used factor analysis (statistical technique that measures the correlations between different items) to conclude that underlying many different specific abilities "s" is a single factor named "g" [Charles Spearman threw a "g" (gangster) SPEAR threw many S shaped stones]
183
L.L. Thurstone
primary mental ability theory has seven main abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning [THOR juggled SEVEN STONEs]
184
J.P. Guilford
primary mental ability theory has well over 100 different abilities [The combination of GUILE and over 100 different abilities made her invincible]
185
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences theorist Spatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic [In his garden grew many different kinds of smart plants]
186
Daniel Goldman
supports EQ (emotional intelligence) [a heart of gold]
187
EQ (emotional intelligence)
ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups; helps people achieve what they want to achieve
188
Robert Sternberg
created triarchic theory, which consists of 1. componential/analytic intelligence 2. experiential intelligence 3. contextual/practical intelligence
189
componential/analytic intelligence
the ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyze part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
190
experiential intelligence
the ability to use their knowledge and experiences in new and creative ways part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
191
contextual/practical intelligence
the ability to apply their knowledge to real-world situations part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
192
Alfred Binet
wanted to design test to find children who would need help in school and created mental age
193
mental age
an average 5-year-old will have the mental age of 5 a below average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 3 an above average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 8
194
Louis Terman
a Stanford professor, came up with Stanford-Binet IQ test
195
Stanford-Binet IQ test
-divide mental age by chronological age, then multiply by 100 -all adults have mental age of 20 -compare: Weschler tests
196
Weschler test
yields deviation IQ scores, mean is 100, standard deviation is 15, scores form a normal distribution also has subscores for verbal and performance
197
heritability
a measure of how much of a trait's variation is explained by genetic factor can range from 0 to 1, with 0 being completely environmentally affected and 1 as completely genetically affected
198
Flynn effect
performance on intelligence tests has been increasing steadily throughout the century, probably due to better environmental factors
199
personality
the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
200
stage theories
theories in which development is thought to be discontinuous example: Freud's stage theory; see developmental psychology chapter 9
201
penis envy
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theory girls are jealous of boys' penises
202
castration anxiety
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theory the fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated
203
identification
part of Freud's psychosexual stage theory when a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them
204
id
contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatos exists entirely in the unconscious mind propelled by pleasure principle
205
pleasure principle
followed by id immediate gratification
206
ego
follows the reality principle job is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind uses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious
207
reality principle
followed by ego negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
208
superego
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind sense of conscience
209
repression
pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness
210
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth
211
displacement
redirecting one's feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotion compare: projection
212
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself compare: displacement
213
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels
214
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
215
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence
216
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
217
sublimation
channeling one's frustration toward a different goal viewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism
218
Jung's unconscious
consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious
219
collective unconscious
unconscious passed down through the species; explains the similarities across cultures contains archetypes
220
archetypes
universal concepts we all share as part of the human species
221
personal unconscious
resembles Freud's view of the unconscious; contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront; called complexes
222
Freudian ego psychologist
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego notable ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
223
Alfred Adler
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
224
inferiority
the fear of failure theorized by Adler to motivate people
225
superiority
the desire to achieve theorized by Adler to motivate people
226
nomothetic
the belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalities Hans Eysenck's introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale Raymond Cattel's 16 PF (personality factor) big five personality traits
227
Hans Eyesenck
introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
228
Raymond Cattel
16 PF (personalty factor)
229
big five personality traits
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)
230
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traits groups the traits that correlate under a common factor
231
idiographic theorists
oppose nomothetic theorists believe that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them
232
Gordon Allport
theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone's personality, you needed to look at their personal traits posited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions
233
cardinal dispositions
one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do
234
central dispositions
more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions
235
secondary dispositions
less apparent than central dispositions
236
criticism of trait theories
underestimate importance of the situation
237
heritability
the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
238
temperaments
heritable the emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world thought to influence the development of his or her personality
239
somatotype theory
William Sheldon identified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin) each body type associated with certain personality traits
240
endomorphs (fat)
according to William Sheldon shy and secretive
241
mesomorphs (muscular)
according to William Sheldon aggressive
242
ectomorphs (thin)
according to William Sheldon friendly and outgoing
243
Albert Bandura
believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior
244
triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism
the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion
245
self-efficacy
Refers to one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels
246
George Kelley
proposed personal-construct theory of personality
247
personal-construct theory of personality
George Kelley people, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructs people's behavior is based on how they interpret the world
248
locus of control
Julian Rotter internal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to them external locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to them internals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school
249
determinism
the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the past compare: free will
250
free will
an individual's ability to choose his or her own destiny compare: determinism
251
humanistic psychology
also called the third force view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free will focus on self-concept and self-esteem
252
self-concept
a person's global feeling about himself and herself
253
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
254
self-actualize
to reach one's full potential believed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
255
self-theory
created by Carl Rogers believed that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize
256
unconditional positive regard
a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers' self-theory
257
projective tests
used by psychoanalysts involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli example: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)
258
self-report inventories
questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves example: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
259
Barnum effect
the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality
260
developmental psychology
the study of how behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives
261
cross-sectional research
participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over life span + produces quick results - results may be due to factors other than age, such as historical evens and cultural change
262
longitudinal research
study of one group of participants over time + precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group - time consuming, results may take years to develop
263
teratogens
certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested/contracted by the mother
264
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
displayed by children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy, small, malformed skulls and mental retardation are symptoms
265
fetal alcohol effect
less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems
266
reflex
specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli
267
rooting reflex
when touched on cheek, will turn head to put object in mouth
268
sucking reflex
object in mouth will suck
269
grasping reflex
object in hand or foot will grasp
270
Moro reflex
startled, fling limbs out, quickly retract them, make himself as small as possible
271
Babinski reflex
foot stroked, spread toes
272
attachment
the reciprocal relationship between parent and child
273
Henry Harlow
study on monkeys with two wire frame monkey mothers, one with milk, one that was soft - monkey babies preferred soft mother over milk mother conclusion: physical comfort is important in the formation of attachment with parents - wireframe baby monkeys became more stressed and frightened than normal baby monkeys when put into new situations
274
Mary Ainsworth
conducted study on what infants would do if their parents left them alone, then came back categorized results into secure attachments (66%), avoidant attachments (21%) and anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
275
secure attachments (66%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experiment confidently explore novel environment when parents are present, distressed when they leave, go to parents when they return
276
avoidant attachments (21%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experiment resist being held by the parents and will explore novel environment, don't go to parents for comfort when they return
277
anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
Mary Ainsworth's baby experiment show extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted when they return
278
authoritarian parenting style
strict standards for their children's behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules
279
effects of authoritarian parenting style
- distrust others and withdrawal from peers - obedient attitudes are more important than discussions on why the rules are what they are - punishment used more than reinforcement
280
permissive parenting style
unclear guidelines for their children; rules are constantly changed or aren't enforced consistently
281
effects of permissive parenting style
emotional control problems are are more dependent
282
authoritative parenting style
set, consistent standards that are reasonable and explained encourage children's independence, but not past point of violating rules praise as much as punish explanations encouraged
283
effects of authoritative parenting style
children are more socially capable and perform better academically`
284
continuity
developing steadily from birth to death
285
discontinuity
developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change
286
psychosexual stages
theorized by Sigmund Freud 1. oral 2. anal 3. phallic 4. latency 5. genital
287
oral (psychosexual stages)
first stage, pleasure through mouth fixation: overeating, smoking, childlike, dependence on things and people
288
anal (psychosexual stages)
second stage, toilet training fixation: overly controlling (retentive), out of control (expulsive)
289
phallic (psychosexual stages)
third stage, babies realize gender boys have Oedipus complex, girls have Electra complex fixation: later problems in relationships
290
latency (psychosexual stages)
forth stage, calm and low psychosexual anxiety
291
genital (psychosexual stages)
fifth and final stage, fixation here is normal
292
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian theoriest who believed in basics of Freud's theory but adapted it to fit his own observations created psychosocial stage theory
293
psychosocial stage theory (eight stages)
created by Erik Erikson 1. trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generativity vs. stagnation 8. integrity vs. despair
294
trust vs. mistrust
first stage of psychosocial stage theory during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
295
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
second stage of psychosocial stage theory a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
296
initiative vs. guilt
third stage of psychosocial stage theory a child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.
297
industry vs. inferiority
fourth stage of psychosocial stage theory a child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.
298
identity vs. role confusion
fifth stage of psychosocial stage theory From age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.
299
intimacy vs. isolation
sixth stage of psychosocial stage theory From age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life
300
generativity vs. stagnation
seventh stage of psychosocial stage theory From age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.
301
integrity vs. despair
eighth stage of psychosocial stage theory From age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.
302
Jean Piaget
created cognitive-development theory
303
assimilation
the incorporation of experiences into existing schemata
304
Jean Piaget's cognitive development stage theory
created by Jean Piaget 1. sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years) 2. preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years) 3. concrete operations (8 to about 12 years) 4. formal operations (12 years through adulthood)`
305
sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
first stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theory object permanence behavior governed by senses and reflexes
306
object permanence
objects continue to exist outside of visual range starts in sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
307
preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)
second stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theory use of symbols to represent real-world objects start using language, but limited in the ways of thinking about objects and their relationships
308
concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
third stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theory start to think more logically about complex relationships concepts of conservation
309
concepts of conservation
the properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes change starts in concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
310
formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
fourth stage of Jean Piaget's cognitive-development theory abstract reasoning hypothesis testing metacognition
311
abstract reasoning
manipulation of objects and contrasting ideas without seeing them starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
312
hypothesis testing
reason from a hypothesis starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
313
metacognition
thinking about thinking starts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
314
criticisms of Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory
- underestimates children - too discontinuous
315
information processing model
a continuous alternative of Piaget's stage theory
316
Lawrence Kohlberg
- experimented on children regarding moral development using the Heinz dilemma - created three broad categories of responses: preconventional, conventional, postconventional
317
Heinz dilemma
stealing a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife's life
318
preconventional
reasoning limited to how things affect themselves - don't steal the drug
319
conventional
choice based on how others will view them - steal
320
postconventional
examines rights and values involved in choice - steal
321
Criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan noted that his research was based on boys, her research showed that boys and girls had different moral attitudes, but was later disproved However, her criticism brought attention to how possible gender differences may change how we develop
322
biopsychological (neuropsychological) theory of gender development
studies demonstrate that biological differences do exist between the sexes women have larger corpus callosums, which may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks
323
psychodynamic theory of gender development
gender development is a competition for your opposite sex parent, when you realize you can't win, you imitate your same-sex parent difficult to verify this idea
324
social-cognitive theory of gender development
effects of society and thoughs about gender on role development gender-schema- messages about gender are internalized into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave
325
motivations
feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
326
Drive Reduction Theory
behavior is motivated by biological needs does not explain all behaviors, such as adrenaline addicts
327
need
one of our requirements for survival
328
drive
an impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need
329
homeostasis
a balanced internal state
330
primary drives
biological needs
331
secondary drives
learned drives
332
arousal theory
motivated by the need for an optimum level of excitement or arousal performance is best at optimum levels of arousal, depending on how difficult the task is (Yerkes-Dodson law)
333
Yerkes-Dodson law
relationship between performance and arousal that states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
334
Incentive Theory
behavior is not pushed by a need, but by a desire (incentive)
335
incentive
stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
336
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
basic needs are fulfilled before other needs physiological (hunger, thirst, sex) safety (safe, secure, out of danger) belongingness and love esteem (approval and recognition) self-actualization (fulfill unique potential
337
lateral hypothalamus
causes animal to eat when stimulated
338
ventromedial hypothalamus
causes animal to feel full when stimulated
339
set-point theory
the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight
340
hunger motivation
stomach feels full --> we feel full (balloon experiment)
341
metabolic rate
how quickly body uses energy
342
externals
people who are motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness or availability
343
internals
people who are more motivated to eat by internal hunger cues (empty stomach)
344
Garcia effect
taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future
345
bulimia
has two phases: binging and purging mostly women
346
binging
eating large amounts of food in a short amount of time
347
purging
getting rid of food through vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.
348
anorexia nervosa
starving yourself to below 85% of normal body weight: vast majority are women
349
obesity
severely overweight, unhealthy eating habits, some are genetically predisposed
350
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual Response Cycle
351
Sexual Response Cycle
created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson 1. initial excitement 2. plateau phase 3. orgasm 4. resolution
352
initial excitement (Sexual Response Cycle)
genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase
353
plateau phase (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus
354
orgasm (Sexual Response Cycle)
rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria
355
resolution (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period- a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately
356
achievement motivation
desire to master complex tasks and knowledge, desire to reach personal goals, desire to figure out world regardless of benefits
357
extrinsic motivators
rewards received for accomplishments that are outside ourselves very effective for a short amount of time
358
intrinsic motivators
rewards we get internally most effective at continuing a behavior
359
Management Theory
consists of theory x: (legalism) people will only work for benefits or threatened with punishments and theory y:employees are internally motivated to do good work has more benefits
360
approach-approach conflict
decision between two favorable outcomes
361
avoidance-avoidance conflict
decision between two unfavorable outcomes
362
approach-avoidance conflict
one event/goal has both good and bad outcomes
363
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
364
Cannon-Bard theory
theory of emotion that the body changes and understanding of the emotion occurs simultaneously from cues in the thalamus - inaccurate about the thalamus playing such a big role, other structures such as the amygdala are involved
365
Two Factor Theory
Stanley Schacter - better than James-Lange and Cannon-Bard - both physical responses and cognitive labels combine to cause emotion - experiment showed that aroused people felt emotions more intensely than not aroused people
366
Stanley Schacter
created Two Factor Theory
367
stressors
stressful life events
368
stress reactions
reactions to stressors
369
social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
designed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe measures stress using life-change units (LCUs) regardless of posiive or negative, events may have the same LCU count shows correlation between stress and disease
370
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
created by Hans Seyle describes the general response animals have to a stressful event 1. alarm reaction 2. resistance 3. exhaustion
371
What happens physically in the alarm reaction GAS
heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other body functions to muscles needed to react, activates the sympathetic nervous system
372
resistance (GAS)
hormones are released t maintain physiological readiness described in alarm reaction, if it lasts too long, can deplete resources
373
exhaustion (GAS)
parasympathetic nervous system returns body back to normal, more vulnerable to disease especially if resources were depleted
374
three-box/information-processing model
sensory, encoding, short-term/working, long-term and retrieval
375
George Sperling
demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a second also: iconic memory
376
sensory memory
a split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information
377
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
378
echoic memory
a split-second perfect memory of a sound
379
selective attention
determines what is encoded from sensory memory to short-term memory
380
short-term (working) memory
memories currently using and are aware of in consciousness - short-term memories will fade in 10 to 30 seconds if mused - capacity is limited to about 7 items
381
chunking
grouping items in about 7 memory tool
382
mnemonic aids
memory aids memory tool
383
rehearse
repeat memory tool
384
long-term memory
permanent storage
385
episodic memory
memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events
386
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially
387
procedural memory
memories of skills and how to perform them
388
explicit (declarative) memory
conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember
389
implicit (nondeclarative) memory
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
390
eidetic (photographic) memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
391
Alexandra Luria
studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later
392
levels of processing model
- long/short-term memory doesn't exist - instead, deeply (elaboratively) or shallowly (maintenance) memory
393
retrieval
two types of retrieval: recognition and recall
394
recognition
the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory
395
recall
retrieving a memory with an external cue
396
primacy effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list compare: recency effect
397
recency effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list compare: primacy effect
398
serial position effect (curve)
when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a list primacy effect and recency effect
399
tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon
condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory
400
semantic network theory
memories are linked to one another like spiderwebs
401
flashbulb memory
highly detailed memory of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising news is heard
402
state-dependent memory
recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness, like sleepiness
403
mood congruent memory
the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened
404
Elizabeth Loftus
showed that recovered memories could be constructed or false recollections of events
405
constructed memory
may report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occured
406
decay
not using a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time
407
relearning
after learning and forgetting, learning again becomes faster
408
interference
other information competes with what you're trying to recall two types: retroactive and proactive
409
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older information compare: proactive interference
410
proactive interference
old information interferes with the recall of newer information compare: retroactive interference
411
anterograde amnesia
old memories can be recalled, new memories (except procedural) cannot be made
412
long-term potention
repeated firings between neurons strengthen the connection between them
413
phonemes
the smallest units of sound used in a language compare: morphemes
414
morphemes
the smallest unit of meaningful sound compare: phonemes
415
language acquisition
natural unconscious process of language development in humans that occurs without instruction, but needs exposure 1. babbling 2. telegraphic
416
language acquisition theory
the ability to learn a language rapidly as children
417
Noam Chomsky
language acquisition device also called nativist theory of language acquisition
418
language acquisition device
the ability to learn a language quickly as children also called nativist theory of language acquisition
419
babbling stage
innate, represents a baby's experimentation with phonemes after this stage, the baby loses the phonemes unused in the primary language
420
telegraphic
second stage in language acquisition combination of the words into simple commands and sentences; meaning clear, syntax absent
421
overgeneralization
misapplication of grammar rules
422
linguistic relativity hypothesis
Benjamin Whorf language may control or limit our thinking - studies show effect of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas, but do not show that language changes what we can think about
423
prototype
Preconceived notion of what something is supposed to look like. what concepts are based on, the most typical example of a particular concept
424
image
mental pictures created in mind, not necessarily visual
425
algorithm
a problem solving technique that guarantees the correct solution by trying every possibility
426
heuristic
a rule of thumb, generally but not always true types: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristic affected by: belief bias and belief perseverance
427
availability heuristic
judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
428
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind
429
belief bias
illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
430
belief perseverance
tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted compare: confirmation bias
431
rigidity (mental set)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
432
functional fixedness
an example of rigidity the inability to see a new use for an object
433
confirmation bias
the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true compare: belief perseverence
434
framing
the way a problem is presented
435
creativity
original/novel but still fits the situation
436
convergent thinking
thinking pointed toward one solution
437
divergent thinking
thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question associated with creativity
438
classical conditioning
people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one compare: operant conditioning
439
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
440
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
441
conditioned response
an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus
442
acquisition
the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
443
delayed conditioning
ideal training - neutral stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, briefly overlaps.
444
trace conditioning
the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
445
simultaneous conditioning
neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus paired together at the same time.
446
backward conditioning
least effective- occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus
447
extinction
the process of unlearning a behavior
448
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
449
generalization
transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus
450
discriminate
distinguish between various stimuli
451
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner's experiment
taught little boy Albert to fear a white rat
452
aversive conditioning
conditioning to avoid an aversive stimulus
453
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.
454
learned taste aversions
If you ingest an unusual food/drink and become nauseous, an aversion to that food/drink will develop (can be based on a single pairing, as opposed to repeated)
455
salient
having a quality that thrusts itself into attention
456
Garcia and Koelling's experiment
experiment showing how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others
457
operant conditioning
type of learning based on the association of consequences with one's behaviors compare: classical conditioning
458
Edward Thorndike and his experiment
one of the first people to research operant conditioning Placed cat in a puzzle box next to food; cat gradually became quicker at getting to the food
459
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
460
instrumental learning
what Throndike called his work because he believed consequences were instrumental in shaping future behaviors
461
B.F. Skinner
created the term "operant conditioning" created Skinner box
462
Skinner box
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response
463
reinforcement
anything that makes a behavior more likely compare: punishment
464
positive reinforcement
the addition of something pleasant
465
negative reinforcement
the removal of something unpleasant
466
punishment
anything that makes a behavior less likely compare: reinforcement
467
positive punishment
the addition of something unpleasant
468
omission training/negative punishment
the removal of something pleasant
469
escape learning
an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
470
avoidance learning
learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
471
shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
472
chaining
in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action
473
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
474
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
475
secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer
476
generalized reinforcer
secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers example: money
477
token economy
An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
478
Premack principle
principle that a less frequently performed behavior can be increased in frequency by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior
479
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
480
partial-reinforcement effect
a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule
481
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
482
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
483
fixed-interval schedule
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
484
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
485
instinctive drift
The tendency for an animal's innate responses to interfere with conditioning processes.
486
contiguity model
a model that the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place
487
contingency model
Robert Rescorla's revision of the contiguity model; the more times the presence of one predicts the other, the greater the learning that will take place
488
observational learning/modeling
studied by Albert Bandura learning through observation and imitation
489
latent learning
studied by Edward Tolman sometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced
490
Edward Tolman
researched latent learning conducted experiment on three groups of rats running through a maze
491
abstract learning
Understanding concepts rather than learning to simply press a bar or peck a disk in order to receive a reward
492
insight learning
studied by Wolfgang Kohler when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
493
Wolfgang Kohler
studied insight learning observed chimpanzees suddenly learn how to get a banana
494
equipotentiality
any animal can be conditioned to do anything opposite to instinctive drift
495
preparedness
biological predisposition to learn some things more quickly than others
496
dualism
the universe, including humans, is made up of thought and matter (matter- everything that has substance)
497
monism
everything is part of the same substance
498
consciousness
level of awareness
499
mere-exposure effect
old stimuli are preferred over new stimuli, because on some level the old stimuli are remembered and known
500
priming
exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus
501
blind sight
some blind people can respond to visual stimuli because on some level of consciousness is able to "see"
502
conscious
the information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of
503
nonconscious
body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually aware of
504
preconscious
information abut yourself or your environment that you are not currently thinking about, but could be
505
subconscious
information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior like priming and mere-exposure
506
unconscious
psychoanalyst idea-- some unacceptable events and feelings are repressed from conscious mind to unconscious difficult to prove
507
circadian rhythm
a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms
508
sleep onset
the stage between wakefulness and sleep
509
alpha waves
relatively high-frequency, low amplitude waves produced while awake and in stages 1 and 2
510
sleep spindles
short bursts of rapid brain waves that start to appear in stage 2 sleep
511
delta sleep/slow-wave sleep
stages 3 and 4's other names due to the delta waves that exist during these stages replenishes the body's chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children and fortifying the immune system
512
rapid eye movement (REM) (paradoxical sleep)
period of intense brain activity, eyes dart back and forth, many muscles twitch repeatedly, dreams occurs when going from delta sleep back to stage 1 sleep lack of REM sleep --> memory issues more stress --> more REM sleep
513
REM rebound
individuals deprived of REM sleep will experience more and longer periods of REM sleep the next time they are allowed to sleep normally
514
insomnia
problems getting to sleep/staying asleep at night affects up to 10% of people
515
treatment of insomnia
treated with changes of behavior: - reduction of caffeine/ other stimulants - exercise at appropriate times
516
narcolepsy
periods of intense sleepiness and falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times affects less than 0.001% of people
517
treatment of narcolepsy
treated with medication and changing sleep patterns (naps at certain times of the day)
518
sleep apnea
when a person stops breathing for short periods of time during the night - robs the person of deep sleep - causes attention and memory problems - treated with respiration machine
519
night terrors
feelings of terror or dread usually affecting children occurs during stage 4 sleep
520
somnambulism
sleep walking usually occurring in children occurs during stage 4 sleep
521
manifest content
literal content of dreams compare: latent content
522
latent content
the unconscious meaning of the manifest content compare: manifest content
523
protected sleep
ego protects us from unconscious by representing everything in symbols
524
activation-synthesis theory
dreams are interpretations of physiological things and have no meaning
525
information-processing theory
more stress causes more dreams about your stress, dream content relates to daily concerns. The brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams and the function of REM may be to integrate information processed during the day into our memories
526
posthypnotic amnesia
people forget events that occurred during hypnosis
527
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion that a hypnotized person have a certain way after hypnosis
528
role theory
hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness; hypnotized people are just filling out the "role" of a hypnotized person
529
hypnotic suggestibility
some people are more easily hypnotized than others richer fantasy life, follow directions well, and able to focus intensely on a single task for a long period of time
530
state theory
theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
531
dissociation theory
created by Ernest Hilgard hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part stays tuned to reality, another part to the hypnotist
532
Ernest Hilgard
dissociation theory
533
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness
534
blood-brain barrier
thick walls surrounding the brain's blood vessels that protect the brain from harmful chemicals
535
agonist
drugs that mimic neurotransmitters
536
antagonists
drugs that block neurotransmitters
537
tolerance
a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect compare: reverse tolerance
538
reverse tolerance
the first dose lingers in the body and enhances the effect of the second dose although it may be smaller compare: tolerance
539
depressants
drugs that slow down body processes examples: alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs ex: Valium)
540
effects of alcohol
slowed down reactions and judgment, impaired motor coordination
541
stimulants
drugs that speed up body processes
542
examples of stimulants
caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine
543
side effects of stimulants
disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems
544
hallucinogens/psychedelics
drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasies stay in body for a long time effects are less predictable
545
examples of hallucinogens/psychedelics
LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marajuana
546
opiates
drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and reduce pain and elevate mood
547
examples of opiates
morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine
548
side effects of opiates
drowsiness, euphoria, physically addictive because they change brain chemistry quickly
549
transduction
the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses
550
cocktail-party phenomenon
when your attention involuntarily switches (someone calls your name)
551
cornea
a protective covering of the eye
552
pupil
dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye
553
lens
curved and flexible in order to focus the light
554
retina
a screen on the back of your eye
555
cones
cells activated by color compare: rods
556
rods
cells that respond to black and white outnumber cones 20:1 compare: cones
557
fovea
located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones
558
ganglion cells
their axons make up the optic nerve that sends visual impulses to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus
559
lateral geniculate nucleus
a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve
560
blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones
561
optic chasm
optic the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain
562
feature detectors
discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
563
trichromatic theory
there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrum does not explain afterimages and color blindness
564
afterimage
an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased
565
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
566
amplitude
the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels
567
frequency
the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz
568
order of sound in your ear
ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail's shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve
569
place theory
hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea
570
frequency theory
place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequency hair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea
571
conduction deafness
something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea
572
nerve (sensorineural) deafness
when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise
573
gate-control theory
when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt
574
papillae
the bumps on your tongue
575
olfactory bulb
one of two enlargements at the terminus of the olfactory nerve at the base of the brain just above the nasal cavities
576
vestibular sense
how our body is oriented in space
577
kinesthetic sense
the position and orientation of specific body parts
578
absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect
579
subliminal
stimuli below absolute threshold
580
difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)
the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a change computed by Weber's law
581
Weber's law
the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
582
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.
583
response criteria (receiver operating characteristics)
how motivated people are to detect certain stimuli and expectations for what they want to perceive
584
false positive
when we think we perceive a stimulus that is not there
585
a false negative
not perceiving a stimulus that is present
586
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations compare: bottom-up processing
587
schemata
mental representations of how we expect the world to be
588
perceptual set
a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way
589
backmasking
supposed hidden messages musicians recorded backward in their music
590
bottom-up processing (feature analysis)
we use only the features of the object itself to perceive it compare: top-down processing
591
figure-ground relationship
A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.
592
constancy
the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance
593
visual cliff experiment
created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth
594
Muller-Lyer illusion
demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture both lines are the same length, but one is perceived to be longer
595
Weber's law for sight
constant for vision: 8%
596
Weber's law for hearing
constant for hearing: 5%
597
Stroboscopic Effect
A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by a series of stationary images that are presented in rapid succession Ex: book flip image thing
598
Phi Phenomenon
The perception of movement as a result of sequential presentation of visual stimuli Ex: Lights on/off= moving
599
Autokinetic Effect
The tendency to perceive a stationary point of light in a dark room as moving
600
Monocular Cues
Not dependent on two eyes
601
Binocular Cues
Depend on two eyes Binocular Disparity: Both eyes see objects with slightly different angles, brain gets both images. Closer= similar image; Farther= more disparity between two images viewed Convergence: Eyes move closer to each other to keep focus as object gets closer to our face
602
neuroanatomy
the study of the parts and function of neurons
603
neurons
individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system
604
dendrites
rootlike parts of the nerve cell that stretch out from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
605
cell body (soma)
contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life
606
axon
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body
607
myelin sheath
a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
608
terminal buttons
also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter
609
neurotransmitters
chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
610
synapse
the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons
611
action potential
the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted
612
function of acetylcholine
motor movement
613
lack of acetylcholine
Alzheimer's disease
614
function of dopamine
motor movement and alertness
615
what is parkisons causes by
lack of dopamine
616
overabundance of dopamine
schizophrenia
617
function of endorphins
pain control; involved in addictions
618
function of serotonin
mood control
619
lack of serotonin
associated with clinical depression
620
afferent neurons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
621
interneurons
in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord
622
efferent neurons
neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body
623
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and spinal cord; nerves encased in bone compare: Peripheral Nervous System
624
Peripheral Nervous System
consists of nerves not encased in bone Divided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous system compare: Central Nervous System
625
Somatic Nervous System
controls voluntary muscle movements compare: Autonomic Nervous System
626
Autonomic Nervous System
controls the automatic functions of our body divided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems compare: Somatic Nervous System
627
Sympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous System mobilizes our body to respond to stress compare: Parasympathetic Nervous System
628
Parasympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous System slowing body down after a stress response compare: Sympathetic Nervous System
629
Phineas Gage
a railroad worker involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain
630
lesioning
the removal or destruction of part of the brain example: frontal lobotomy
631
frontal lobotomy
type of lesioining that was used to treat mentally ill patiens
632
electroencephalogram (EEG)
detects brain waves, used in sleep research
633
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain
634
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain
635
Portion Emission Tomography (PET)
measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using
636
Functional MRI
combination of MRI and PET
637
hindbrain
structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
638
medulla
part of hindbrain controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
639
pons
part of hindbrain connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, involved in the control of facial expressions
640
cerebellum
part of hindbrain looks like smaller version of brain stuck onto the underside of brain, coordinates fine muscle movements
641
midbrain
coordinates simple movements with sensory information contains reticular formation
642
reticular formation
a netlike collection of cells throughout the hindbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attention if it does not function, you will fall into a coma
643
forebrain
controls thought and reason contains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus
644
thalamus
part of forebrain located at top of brain stem receives sensory signals from spinal cord and sends hem to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain
645
hypothalamus
part of forebrain controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system
646
amygdala and hippocampus
hippocampus- arms surrounding the thalamus amygdala- structures near the end of each hippocampal arm involved in processing and perceiving memory and emotion
647
limbic system
made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus deal with aspects of emotion and memory
648
fissures
wrinkles in the cerebral cortex
649
contralateral control
each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
650
brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each hemisphere
651
corpus callosum
the nerve bundle that connects the two hempisheres; cut in split-brain patients
652
split-brain patients
patients whose corpus callosums have been cut
653
association area
any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements
654
frontal lobes
part of the cerebral cortex responsible for abstract thought and emotional control contains: Broca's area and motor cortex
655
Broca's area
in the frontal lobe responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech
656
motor cortex
in the frontal lobe sends signals to muscles, controlling voluntary movements bottom of cortex controls top of body and vice versa
657
parietal lobes
contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
658
sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body bottom of sensory cortex receives sensations from top of body and vice versa
659
occipital lobes
at the very back of the brain impulses from the right half of each retina is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa
660
temporal lobes
unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobes contains Wernicke's area
661
Wernicke's area
located in temporal lobe interprets both written and spoken speech
662
brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
663
adrenal glands
produce adrenaline, which causes rest of body to go into fight or flight mode
664
Thomas Bouchard
conducted study on identical twins that found a correlation of 0.69 on IQ, criticized because their similar appearances may have led to their being treated similarly
665
Turner's syndrome
only one X chromosome in the 23rd pair shortness, webbed necks
666
Klinefelter's syndrome
extra X chromosome minimal sexual development and personality traits like extreme introversion
667
Down's syndrome
extra chromosome on the 21st pair rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, different extents of mental retardation
668
applied research
research with clear, practical applications compare: basic research
669
basic research
research that explores questions that are of interest of psychologists that are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications compare: applied research
670
valid
measures what it's supposed to measure; accurate compare: reliable
671
reliable
can be replicated, consistent compare: valid
672
hypothesis
a relationship between two variables
673
variables
things that vary among the participants in the research
674
dependent variable
depends on the independent variable
675
theory
an explanation of some phenomenon, allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses
676
operationalize
to explain how you will measure a variable
677
subjects
the participants in research
678
sampling
the process by which subjects are selected
679
sample
group of subjects; should be representative of a larger population
680
population
anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample
681
random selection
randomly selecting the sample group, increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population
682
stratified sampling
randomly sampling each strata (category of people, for example race or gender) of the population, so that the final sample reflects the population more accurately
683
laboratory experiment
conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment
684
field experiment
conducted in the world, more realistic than laboratory experiment compare: laboratory experiment
685
experiment
only experiments can show cause and effect relationships through the manipulation of the independent variable and subsequent observation of the dependent variable while controlling for confounding variables
686
confounding variable
any difference between the experimental and control conditions, besides the changes of the independent variable
687
assignment
the process by which subjects are put into a group, experimental or control
688
random assignment
each subject has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or the control group controls subject-relevant confounding variables compare: random selection
689
group matching
half of each condition (for example, male or female) is assigned to each group (experimental or control) compare: stratified sampling
690
situation-relevant confounding variables
differences between the experimental and control situations that may affect the experiment equivalent environments control for situation-relevant confounding variables
691
experimenter bias
the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypotheses
692
double-blind procedure
neither the subjects nor the researcher are able to affect the outcome of the research minimizes the effect of demand characteristics and some kind of response/subject bias compare: single-blind procedure
693
single-blind procedure
only the subjects do not know which group they're in minimizes the effect of demand characteristics and some kind of response/subject bias compare: double-blind procedure
694
demand characteristics
cues about the purpose of the study
695
response/subject bias
when subjects behave in ways they think the observer wants them to behave social desirability (desire to act or answer questions in a way that others will like) is a type of this
696
Hawthorne effect
selecting a group of people on whom to experiment will affect the performance of hat group, regardless of what is done to the individuals
697
placebo effect
the purely psychological effects of thinking you took a drug when you really didn't
698
counterbalancing
using subjects as their own control group by having half of them be experimental first and half of them be control first
699
order effect
the order of the experimental/control group activities may affect the results
700
correlation
a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause
701
ex post facto study
research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition; all other variables are controlled
702
survey method
kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables
703
naturalistic observation
unobtrusive observation on subjects in their natural habitats, control is sacrificed compare: field experiment
704
case study
a full, detailed picture of one subject or a small group of subjects; not reflective of population, as a result findings cannot be generalized
705
descriptive statistics
describe a set of data compare: inferential statistics
706
frequency distribution
a distribution of observed frequencies of occurrence of the values of a variable
707
frequency polygon
line graph
708
histogram
bar graph
709
measures of central tendency
attempt to mark the center of a distribution consists of mean, median, mode compare: measures of variability
710
mean
the average of all the scores in a distribution most commonly used measure of central tendency when distorted by extreme scores or outliers, median should be used compare: median, mode
711
median
the middle score of a distribution when written in ascending or descending order compare: mode, mean
712
mode
the score that appears most frequently compare: median, mean
713
positively skewed
when a distribution has a high outlier, there are more low scores than high scores due to the outlier mean is higher than median compare: negatively skewed
714
negatively skewed
when a distribution has a low outlier, there are more high scores than low scores due to the outlier mean is lower than median compare: positively skewed
715
measures of variability
attempt to depict the diversity of the distribution consists of range, variance, standard deviation compare: measures of central tendency
716
variance
the average of the squared differences of each number from the mean compare: standard deviation, range
717
standard deviation
the square root of the variance compare: variance, range
718
range
the distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution compare: variance, standard deviation
719
z score
the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation negative z scores are below the mean positive z scores and above the mean
720
normal curve
theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve lying between any two z scores has been predetermined memorize the normal distribution chart
721
percentile
the distance of a score from 0 nth percentile means you scored better than n percent of the people taking the test
722
correlation coefficient
range from -1 and +1 0 is the weakest correlation-- no correlation
723
scatter plot
a series of points plotted on a graph the closer the points come to a line, the stronger the correlation
724
line of best fit
the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line
725
inferential statistics
determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected; making sure the results are not due to sampling error and chance t-tests, ANOVAs, MANOVAs are types of inferential statistical tests compare: descriptive statistics
726
sampling error
the extent to which a sample differs from the population
727
p value
the percent chance that the findings were due to chance .05 (5% chance) is the cut off for statistically significant results p value of 0 cannot exist
728
institutional review board
reviews research proposal for ethical violations and/or procedural errors
729
informed consent
participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent
730
coercion
participation must be voluntary
731
anonymity/confidentiality
both protect privacy anonymity- no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person confidentiality- the source of any data will not be revealed
732
risk
participants cannot be placed in significant mental or physical risk
733
debriefing procedures
participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about study results
734
introspection
the purposeful and rational self-observation of one's mental state; first wave of psychology
735
trephination
a operation used by Stone Age humans that removes a circular section of bone from the skull
736
Wilhelm Wundt
set up the first psychological laboratory, trained subjects in introspection
737
structuralism
the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations
738
William James
published psychology's first textbook: The Principles of Psychology, created functionalism
739
functionalism
explains how the structures in structuralism function in our lives
740
Gestalt psychology
examined a person's total experience, not just bits and pieces of it; second wave of psychology
741
Max Wertheimer
a Gestalt psychologist
742
psychoanalysis
human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational drives; third wave of psychology
743
Sigmund Freud
created psychoanalytic theory
744
unconscious mind
a part of the mind that we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
745
repression
the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them
746
defense mechanism
psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality
747
behaviorism
psychologists should only look at behavior and causes of behavior, not elements of consciousness; fourth wave of psychology; dominant school of thought from the 1920s to 1960s
748
John Watson
studied Ivan Pavlov's conditioning experiments, main proponent of behaviorism
749
stimuli
environmental events
750
responses
physical reactions
751
B.F. Skinner
behaviorist, expanded the ideas to include reinforcement
752
reinforcement
environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses
753
eclectic
drawing from multiple perspectives of psychology; fifth wave of psychology; most current psychologists are eclectic
754
humanism
stresses individual choice and free will, most of our behaviors are chosen due to physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs
755
Abraham Maslow
Contributed to humanistic psych and hierarchy of needs
756
Carl Rogers
Founder of the humanist approach
757
biopsychology
explains human thought and behavior in terms of biological processes only
758
evolutionary psychologists (sociobiologists)
examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection
759
natural selection
favorable traits for survival will be passed down and preserved
760
cognitive psychologists
examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events
761
social-cultural psychologists
looks at how human thought and behavior varies from culture to culture
762
comparative psychologists
look at the psychology of non-human animals
763
overt behavior
Behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.
764
covert behavior
Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings are covert behaviors.