BARRONS Flashcards
social cognition
how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
attitude
set of beliefs and feelings
mere exposure effect
the more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it
LaPiere study
discovered that although people had bad attitudes towards Asians, they still treated them well
conclusion: attitude does not necessarily reflect behavior
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Festinger and Carlsmith experiment
Subjects asked to perform a boring task and then lie to the next subject that it was fun. One group was paid $1 and the other group was paid $20. The group paid $1 said that the boring task was fun, because they didn’t have much of an external motivation to lie.
compliance strategies
strategies to get others to comply with your wishes
foot-in-the-door
if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger
door-in-the-face
after people refuse a large reques, hey will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable
norms of reciprocity
if someone does something nice for you, you feel obligated to do something nice for them
attribution theory
how people determine the cause of what they observe
dispositional/person attribution
personality traits; Charley did well on a math test because he is good at math
situation attribution
situational influence; Charley did well on a math test because the test was easy
Harold Kelley
put forth a theory that explains the kind of attributions people make based on three kinds of information: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
consistency
how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time
distinctiveness
how similar this situation is to other situations in which we have watched the individual
consensus
how other people acted in the same situation
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes others to act in ways that make that expectation come true
Rosenthal and Jacobsen’s experiment
“Pygmalion in the Classroom”
when teachers expect students to do well and show intellectual growth, they do, example of self-fulling prophecy
fundamental attribution error
people in individualist cultures systematically seem to overestimate the role of dispositional factors in influencing another person’s actions
false-consensus effect
the tendency of people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them
self-serving bias
the tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones
just-world belief
misfortunes befall people who deserve them
stereotypes
ideas about what members of different groups are like, and these expectations may influence the way we interact with members of these groups
prejudice
an undeserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of people
compare: discrimination
discrimination
unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice
compare: prejudice
in-group
people of their own group, seen as more diverse than people of out-groups
out-group
people of other groups, seen as more homogeneous than people of in-groups
in-group bias
people have a preference for members of their own group
contact theory
contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the groups are made to work toward a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all (superordinate goal)
superordinate goal
a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all
Sherif’s camp study
Robbers Cave study
divided the campers into two groups and had them compete –> disliked each other
had the two groups work together –> improved relations
instrumental aggression
aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
frustration-aggression hypothesis
the feeling of frestration makes aggression more likely
Bandura, Ross, and Ross’s experiment
Bobo doll experiment
aggressive models lead to aggressive children
prosocial behavior
behavior in which you help others
bystander intervention
the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
pluralistic ignorance
“no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes”
similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking
the three factors of physical attractiveness
trephination
a operation that removes a circular section of bone from the skull
Hippocrates
a Greek philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
Galen
a Roman philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
deinstitutionalization
1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals in order to save money and benefit the former inpatients
Did deinstitutionalization work?
No, because the former patients were unable to care for themselves, ending up homeless and delusional.
preventative efforts
psychological problems can be treated proactively, or before they become severe, suffering and cost to client will go down.
primary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease
secondary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease in people at risk
tertiary prevention
methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity
psychotherapy
therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client, patient, family, couple, or group
somatic treatments
the use of drugs to treat mental illness
What kind of psychologists use “patient”?
psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
What kind of psychologists use “client”?
therapists other than psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
psychoanalysis
a set of techniques developed by Freud for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders
symptom substitution
when, after a person is successfully treated for one psychological disorder, that person begins to experience a new psychological problem
hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness in which psychoanalysts believe that people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts
free associate
to say whatever comes to mind without thinking, supposed to bypass the ego’s censoring and defenses and go straight into the unconscious where the problems are
dream analysis
the patient reports the literal content (manifest content) to the psychoanalyst who interprets it to become what it really means (latent/hidden content)
resistance
patient objections to the psychoanalyst’s interpretation
the psychoanalyst usually sees this as a sign that the analyst is heading in the right direction
transference
when patients begin to have strong feelings (negative or positive) toward their therapists
the psychoanalyst sees this as a redirection of strong emotions felt toward people with whom they have had troubling relationships onto their therapists
psychodynamic theorists
psychologists who are influenced by Freud’s work but have significantly modified his original theory
insight therapies
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic treatments and humanistic therapies
a variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses
self-actualization
to reach one’s highest potential
free will
the ability to choose their own destinies
compare: determinism
determinism
people have no influence over what happens to them and that their choices are predetermined by forces outside of their control
compare: free will
Carl Rogers
humanist
created client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard and active listening
unconditional positive regard
blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does
humanistic therapists believe that this will help clients accept and take responsibility for themselves
non-directive
humanistic therapists do not tell the clients what to do but seek to help the clients choose a course of action for themselves.
active listening
empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies
part of Carl Rogers’ client-centered therapy
Gestalt therapy
developed by Fritz Perls
an existentialist approach to psychological treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them
existential therapy
humanistic therapy that focuses on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives
counterconditioning
behavioral therapy
a kind of classical conditioning developed by Mary Cover Jones in which an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one
systematic desensitization
behavioral therapy
developed by Joseph Wolpe, a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with imagined, gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli, eventually replacing the feelings of anxiety with relaxation
anxiety hierarchy
a rank-ordered list of what the client fears, from least frightening to most frightening
in vivo desensitization
behavioral therapy
a form of systematic desensitization in which the stimulus is actually encountered
implosive therapy
behavioral therapy
a type of counterconditioning that has the client imagine the most anxiety inducing thing first, in the hopes that they will realize that their fear is irrational
aversive conditioning
behavioral therapy
pairing a habit a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus
instrumental conditioning
behavioral therapy
involves using rewards and/or punishments to modify a person’s behavior
token economy
behavioral therapy
a type of instrumental conditioning
desired behaviors are identified and rewarded with tokens that can later be exchanged for various objects or privileges
modeling (therapy)
behavioral therapy
can be used to treat phobia by having the client observe someone else interact calmly with the anxiety inducing object
attributional style
a person’s characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT or RET)
Cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis. Therapists look to expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of their clients.
cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck, usually used in treatment of depression, involves trying to get clients to engage in pursuits that will bring them success
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beck
people’s beliefs about themselves, their worlds, and their futures
family therapy
a type of group therapy used to treat families
self-help groups
a type of group therapy that does not involve a therapist
psychopharmacology/chemotherapy
the use of drugs to treat psychological problems
antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics)
block the receptor sites for dopamine, used to treat schizophrenia, may result in tardive dyskinesia
examples: Thorazine or Haldol
tardive dyskinesia
Parkinsonian-like, chronic muscle tremors
lithium
a metal used to treat the manic phase of bipolar disorder
drugs used to treat anxiety disorders
barbiturates (Miltown) and benzodiazepines (Xanax and Valium)
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
when an electric current is passed through one (unilateral ECT) or both (bilateral ECT) hemispheres of the brain
Used to treat major depression and bipolar that is not responsive to other treatments.
psychosurgery
the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a person’s behavior
prefrontal lobotomy
a type of psychosurgery
an operation involving the cutting off of the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe of the brain
reduced level of functioning and awareness to a vegetative state
psychiatrists
medical doctors and are the only therapists permitted to prescribe medication
clinical psychologists
psychologists with a Ph. D. and specialize in research, assessment, and therapy
counseling psychologists
psychologists with a graduate degree in psychology and treat less severe problems than clinical psychologists do
psychoanalysts
people trained specifically in Freudian methods who may or may not hold medical degrees
abnormal psychology
the study of people who suffer from psychological disorders
abnormality
- maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual
- disturbing to others
- unusual, unshared by many others of the same population
- irrational, doesn’t make sense to the average person
insane
a legal term used to describe people who, because of a psychological disorder, cannot be held fully responsible for their crimes
NGRI= not guilty by reason of insanity
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
a book used by psychologists to determine if someone has a psychological disorder
does not include discussion of causes or treatments because different factions of psychology have different ideas about the causes and treatments
latest version is the DSM-IV-TR
intern’s syndrome
the tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders about which one is learning
phobia
anxiety disorder
an intense, unwarranted fear of a situation or object
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
anxiety disorder
constant, low-level anxiety
panic disorder
anxiety disorder
acute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation, panic attacks tend to increase in frequency, people suffer more anxiety from anticipating the attacks
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
anxiety disorder
when persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action
post-traumatic stress disorder
anxiety disorder
flashbacks or nightmares following a person’s involvement in or an observation of an extremely troubling event, these memories cause anxiety
somatoform disorders
when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological problem
hypochondriasis
somatoform disorder
minor problems are thought to be severe physical illness, frequent physical problems with no apparent cause
conversion disorder
somatoform disorder
a severe physical problem with no biological cause
dissociative disorders
disruptions in conscious processes
psychogenic amnesia
dissociative disorder
when a person cannot remember things and a physiological basis cannot be found
compare: organic amnesia
organic amnesia
when a person cannot remember things and there is a biological reason
compare: psychogenic amnesia
fugue state
dissociative disorder
having psychogenic amnesia and finding oneself in an unfamiliar environment
dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorder
several personalities that may represent different ages and both sexes, people with DID commonly have a history of sexual abuse or some other childhood trauma
rare outside of US; DIDers may be role-playing b/c of their therapists’ questions and media portrayals
major (unipolar) depression
mood or affective disorder
unhappiness for more than two weeks without a clear reason
other symptoms: loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, feeling of worthlessness
linked with low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
dissociative disorder
depression only during certain times of the year, usually winter
bipolar disorder (manic depression)
dissociative disorder
depressed and manic (feelings of high energy) episodes
linked with more receptors for acetylcholine
Aaron Beck
cognitive theorist who believes that the cognitive triad causes depression
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beck
unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world and their futures
failure is attributed to internal, global and stable causes
success is attributed to external, specific and unstable causes
schizophrenia
disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations
delusions
beliefs that have no basis in reality
common delusions are persecution and grandeur
hallucination
perception without sensory stimulation
disorganized schizophrenics
use language oddly with neologisms and/or clang associations
also show inappropriate affect and flat affect
neologisms
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics
made up words
clang associations
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics
a string of nonsense words that rhyme
inappropriate affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics
expressing contradictory behavior when describing or experiencing an emotion (e.g., smiling when discussing something sad; laughing when talking about the death of a loved one).
flat affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenics
lack of emotinal reactivity
paranoid schizophrenia
schizophrenia characterized by delusions of persecution
catatonic schizophrenia
engage in odd movements such as remaining motionless in strange postures for hours at a time, move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason or alternate between the two
when motionless, may display waxy flexibility
increasingly less common form of schizophrenia in United States
waxy flexibility
characteristic of catatonic schizophrenics
feature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they are placed by others
undifferentiated schizophrenia
exhibit disordered thinking, but none of the other symptoms
positive symptoms
excesses in behavior, thought, or mood
examples: neologisms, hallucinations
compare: negative symptoms
negative symptoms
deficits in behavior, thought, or mood
examples: flat affect, catatonia
compare: positive symptoms
dopamine relationship with schizophrenia 
high levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia
tardive dyskinesia
muscle tremors and stiffness caused by extensive use of anti psychotic drugs
double binds theory
cognitive-behavioral cause for schizophrenia
The Double Bind Theory was first articulated in relationship to schizophrenia when Bateson and his colleagues hypothesized that schizophrenic thinking was not necessarily an inborn mental disorder but a pattern of learned helplessness in response to cognitive double-binds externally imposed.
contradictory messages
compare: double blinds
paraphilia
the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual
most paraphilias occur more commonly in men than in women, except for masochism
fetishism
paraphilia
attraction to objects
pedophilia
paraphilia
abnormal sexual desire in adults for children
zoophilia
paraphilia
attraction to animals
voyeurism
paraphilia
someone who becomes sexually aroused by watching others engage in some kind of sexual behavior
masochist
paraphilia
someone who is aroused by having pain inflicted upon them
sadist
paraphilia
someone who is aroused by inflicting pain on someone else
antisocial personality disorder
little regard for other people’s feelings
criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder
dependent personality disorder
rely too much on the attention and help of others
paranoid personality disorder
feeling persecuted, always nervous
narcissistic personality disorder
seeing oneself as the center of the universe
histronic personality disorder
overly dramatic behavior
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
overly concerned with certain thoughts and performing certain behaviors, but not to the point of obsessive compulsive disorder
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder
loss of 15 percent or more of the average body weight for one’s age and size, an intense fear of fat and food, distorted body image
bulimia
eating disorder
fear of food and fat and a distorted body image
consists of a binge-purge cycle (eat a lot, then throw it up or use laxatives to get rid of the food)
substance use disorder
regular and negative use of alcohol or other drugs that alter behavior
substance dependence
addiction
autism
developmental disorder
seek less social and emotional contact than other children
slow to develop language skills
less likely to seek out parental support when distressed
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
developmental disorder
difficulty paying attention or sitting still, occurs more commonly in boys
may be an overdiagnosis of a behavior typical in young boys
Rosenhan Study
study in which healthy individuals were admitted into mental hospitals after saying they were hearing voices. Once in, they acted normally and still were not labeled as impostors.
raised questions about institutional care levels and the influence of labels
standardized
tested on a standardization sample and made to fit norms
standardization samples
a group of people representative of the people who normally will take the test
reliability
results are consistent; can be duplicated
compare: reliability
split-half reliability
test is split into two, each half is tested, if the scores are consistent, then the test is reliable (the closer the correlation is to +1, the more reliable)
equivalent-form reliability
correlation between performance on different forms of the test
test-retest reliability
correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on a subsequent administration of the test
valid
measures what it’s supposed to measure, accurate
compare: reliability
face validity
“if it looks like it works”
type of content validity
content validity
how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it’s supposed to be testing
concurrent validity
measures how much of a characteristic a person has now
type of criterion-related validity
predictive validity
measures future performance
type of criterion-related validity
construct validity
correlates the new test with another already-proved-to-be-valid test
aptitude test
test that measures ability or potential
achievement test
test that measures what one has accomplished or learned
speed test
large number of questions asked in a short amount of time, insufficient time is given
goal: see how fast someone can solve problems
compare: power test
power test
questions are asked in increasing difficulty level, sufficient time is given
goal: see what the ceiling difficulty level is
compare: speed test
group test
test administered to a large group of people, less expensive, more objective
compare: individual test
individual test
test administered on a one-on-one basis, more expensive, less objective
compare: group test
intelligence
the ability to gather and use information in productive ways
fluid intelligence
the ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills, seems to decrease over time
compare: crystallized intelligence
crystallized intelligence
the ability to use knowledge accumulated over time, seems to stay the same or increase over time
compare: fluid intelligence
Charles Spearman
intelligence theorist
used factor analysis (statistical technique that measures the correlations between different items) to conclude that underlying many different specific abilities “s” is a single factor named “g”
[Charles Spearman threw a “g” (gangster) SPEAR threw many S shaped stones]
L.L. Thurstone
primary mental ability theory has seven main abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning
[THOR juggled SEVEN STONEs]
J.P. Guilford
primary mental ability theory has well over 100 different abilities
[The combination of GUILE and over 100 different abilities made her invincible]
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences theorist
Spatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic
[In his garden grew many different kinds of smart plants]
Daniel Goldman
supports EQ (emotional intelligence)
[a heart of gold]
EQ (emotional intelligence)
ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups; helps people achieve what they want to achieve
Robert Sternberg
created triarchic theory, which consists of
- componential/analytic intelligence
- experiential intelligence
- contextual/practical intelligence
componential/analytic intelligence
the ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyze
part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
experiential intelligence
the ability to use their knowledge and experiences in new and creative ways
part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
contextual/practical intelligence
the ability to apply their knowledge to real-world situations
part of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
Alfred Binet
wanted to design test to find children who would need help in school and created mental age
mental age
an average 5-year-old will have the mental age of 5
a below average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 3
an above average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 8
Louis Terman
a Stanford professor, came up with Stanford-Binet IQ test
Stanford-Binet IQ test
-divide mental age by chronological age, then multiply by 100
-all adults have mental age of 20
-compare: Weschler tests
Weschler test
yields deviation IQ scores, mean is 100, standard deviation is 15, scores form a normal distribution
also has subscores for verbal and performance
heritability
a measure of how much of a trait’s variation is explained by genetic factor
can range from 0 to 1, with 0 being completely environmentally affected and 1 as completely genetically affected
Flynn effect
performance on intelligence tests has been increasing steadily throughout the century, probably due to better environmental factors
personality
the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
stage theories
theories in which development is thought to be discontinuous
example: Freud’s stage theory; see developmental psychology chapter 9
penis envy
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory
girls are jealous of boys’ penises
castration anxiety
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory
the fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated
identification
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory
when a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them
id
contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatos
exists entirely in the unconscious mind
propelled by pleasure principle
pleasure principle
followed by id
immediate gratification
ego
follows the reality principle
job is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind
uses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious
reality principle
followed by ego
negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
superego
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mind
sense of conscience
repression
pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth
displacement
redirecting one’s feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotion
compare: projection
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneself
compare: displacement
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
sublimation
channeling one’s frustration toward a different goal
viewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism
Jung’s unconscious
consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious
collective unconscious
unconscious passed down through the species; explains the similarities across cultures
contains archetypes
archetypes
universal concepts we all share as part of the human species
personal unconscious
resembles Freud’s view of the unconscious; contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront; called complexes
Freudian ego psychologist
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego
notable ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
Alfred Adler
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
inferiority
the fear of failure
theorized by Adler to motivate people
superiority
the desire to achieve
theorized by Adler to motivate people
nomothetic
the belief that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalities
Hans Eysenck’s introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
Raymond Cattel’s 16 PF (personality factor)
big five personality traits
Hans Eyesenck
introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
Raymond Cattel
16 PF (personalty factor)
big five personality traits
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traits
groups the traits that correlate under a common factor
idiographic theorists
oppose nomothetic theorists
believe that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them
Gordon Allport
theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone’s personality, you needed to look at their personal traits
posited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions
cardinal dispositions
one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do
central dispositions
more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions
secondary dispositions
less apparent than central dispositions
criticism of trait theories
underestimate importance of the situation
heritability
the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
temperaments
heritable
the emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the world
thought to influence the development of his or her personality
somatotype theory
William Sheldon
identified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin)
each body type associated with certain personality traits
endomorphs (fat)
according to William Sheldon
shy and secretive
mesomorphs (muscular)
according to William Sheldon
aggressive
ectomorphs (thin)
according to William Sheldon
friendly and outgoing
Albert Bandura
believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior
triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism
the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion
self-efficacy
Refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels
George Kelley
proposed personal-construct theory of personality
personal-construct theory of personality
George Kelley
people, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructs
people’s behavior is based on how they interpret the world
locus of control
Julian Rotter
internal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to them
external locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to them
internals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school
determinism
the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the past
compare: free will
free will
an individual’s ability to choose his or her own destiny
compare: determinism
humanistic psychology
also called the third force
view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free will
focus on self-concept and self-esteem
self-concept
a person’s global feeling about himself and herself
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
self-actualize
to reach one’s full potential
believed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
self-theory
created by Carl Rogers
believed that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize
unconditional positive regard
a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers’ self-theory
projective tests
used by psychoanalysts
involve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli
example: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)
self-report inventories
questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves
example: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
Barnum effect
the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality
developmental psychology
the study of how behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives
cross-sectional research
participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over life span
+ produces quick results
- results may be due to factors other than age, such as historical evens and cultural change
longitudinal research
study of one group of participants over time
+ precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group
- time consuming, results may take years to develop
teratogens
certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested/contracted by the mother
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
displayed by children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy, small, malformed skulls and mental retardation are symptoms
fetal alcohol effect
less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems
reflex
specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli
rooting reflex
when touched on cheek, will turn head to put object in mouth
sucking reflex
object in mouth will suck
grasping reflex
object in hand or foot will grasp
Moro reflex
startled, fling limbs out, quickly retract them, make himself as small as possible
Babinski reflex
foot stroked, spread toes
attachment
the reciprocal relationship between parent and child
Henry Harlow
study on monkeys with two wire frame monkey mothers, one with milk, one that was soft
- monkey babies preferred soft mother over milk mother
conclusion: physical comfort is important in the formation of attachment with parents
- wireframe baby monkeys became more stressed and frightened than normal baby monkeys when put into new situations
Mary Ainsworth
conducted study on what infants would do if their parents left them alone, then came back
categorized results into secure attachments (66%), avoidant attachments (21%) and anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
secure attachments (66%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment
confidently explore novel environment when parents are present, distressed when they leave, go to parents when they return
avoidant attachments (21%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment
resist being held by the parents and will explore novel environment, don’t go to parents for comfort when they return
anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experiment
show extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted when they return
authoritarian parenting style
strict standards for their children’s behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules
effects of authoritarian parenting style
- distrust others and withdrawal from peers
- obedient attitudes are more important than discussions on why the rules are what they are
- punishment used more than reinforcement
permissive parenting style
unclear guidelines for their children; rules are constantly changed or aren’t enforced consistently
effects of permissive parenting style
emotional control problems are are more dependent
authoritative parenting style
set, consistent standards that are reasonable and explained
encourage children’s independence, but not past point of violating rules
praise as much as punish
explanations encouraged
effects of authoritative parenting style
children are more socially capable and perform better academically`
continuity
developing steadily from birth to death
discontinuity
developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change
psychosexual stages
theorized by Sigmund Freud
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latency
- genital
oral (psychosexual stages)
first stage, pleasure through mouth
fixation: overeating, smoking, childlike, dependence on things and people
anal (psychosexual stages)
second stage, toilet training
fixation: overly controlling (retentive), out of control (expulsive)
phallic (psychosexual stages)
third stage, babies realize gender
boys have Oedipus complex, girls have Electra complex
fixation: later problems in relationships
latency (psychosexual stages)
forth stage, calm and low psychosexual anxiety
genital (psychosexual stages)
fifth and final stage, fixation here is normal
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian theoriest who believed in basics of Freud’s theory but adapted it to fit his own observations
created psychosocial stage theory
psychosocial stage theory (eight stages)
created by Erik Erikson
- trust vs. mistrust
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- initiative vs. guilt
- industry vs. inferiority
- identity vs. role confusion
- intimacy vs. isolation
- generativity vs. stagnation
- integrity vs. despair
trust vs. mistrust
first stage of psychosocial stage theory
during the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
second stage of psychosocial stage theory
a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
initiative vs. guilt
third stage of psychosocial stage theory
a child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.
industry vs. inferiority
fourth stage of psychosocial stage theory
a child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.
identity vs. role confusion
fifth stage of psychosocial stage theory
From age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.
intimacy vs. isolation
sixth stage of psychosocial stage theory
From age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life
generativity vs. stagnation
seventh stage of psychosocial stage theory
From age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.
integrity vs. despair
eighth stage of psychosocial stage theory
From age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.
Jean Piaget
created cognitive-development theory
assimilation
the incorporation of experiences into existing schemata
Jean Piaget’s cognitive development stage theory
created by Jean Piaget
- sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
- preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)
- concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
- formal operations (12 years through adulthood)`
sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory
object permanence
behavior governed by senses and reflexes
