Bacterial Structure and Growth, and Genetics Flashcards
Functions of Bacterial Envelope
Protect cells from mechanical disruption and from bursting caused by hypertonicity.
Metabolic process
Mediate attachment to human cell surfaces (disease)
Chromosome segregation
Electron transport system (mitochondria)
Endotoxin
Peptidoglycan Structure
Major Cell Wall components: peptidoglycan and teichoic acid
Peptidoglycan composed of glycan chains (NAG-NAM) cross-linked by peptide chains
Peptidoglycan is resistant to most mammalian enzymes except lysozyme (in tears)
Penicillin blocks the formation of cross-links
Differences between Gram Positive (+) and Gram Negative (-) Envelope
Gram+
2 Layers:
Inner cytoplasmic membrane
Thick Peptidoglycan layer (60-100%) (Cell Wall)
Low lipid content
No endotoxin
No porin channel
Gram - 3 Layers: Inner cytoplasmic membrane Thin Peptidoglycan layer (5-10% peptidoglycan) Outer Membrane with LPS
High lipid content (b/c outer membrane)
Endotoxin (LPS) (composed of 3 parts: Lipid A is embedded in membrane, core polysaccharide, then O side chain formed by linked sugars)
Porin channel (selective)
Gram Stain Procedure
1) Heat Fixation: Denatures microbial proteins, fixing microbe to slide
2) Primary Stain: Crystal Violet dye
—Gram+ stains Purple
—Gram- stains Purple
3) Mordant (Iodine): sets the stain; increases the crystal violet affinity; omission of this step causes pink stain, regardless of cell type.
—Gram+ remains purple
—Gram- remains Purple
4) Decolorize with Ethanol:
—Gram+ remains Purple
—Gram- becomes Colorless
5) Counterstain (Safranin Dye)
—Gram+ remains Purple
—Gram- stains Pink
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Bacteria
Catalase and Superoxide Dismutase
Catalase Test
Aerobic bacteria
Require O2 and metabolize by respiration
Cannot ferment
Contain Catalase and Superoxide Dismutase
Anaerobic bactera
O2 inhibits or kills them
Ferment in absence of O2
No catalase or superoxide dismutase
Catalase Test
Add hydrogen peroxide to samples. Bubble formation = O2, indicating positive result.
Catalase:
Converts hydrogen peroxide to water and O2
(Hydrogen peroxide was formed by adding electrons or protons to O2)
Superoxide Dismutase (SOD):
Protects oxygen-metabolizing cells against harmful effects of superoxide free radicals
Converts superoxide anion to water and hydrogen peroxide.
Both hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion are very toxic to cells.
Antibiotic Targets of Peptidoglycan Synthesis
Beta-Lactam Antibiotics:
Inhibit Last Step in Peptidoglycan Synthesis (Transpeptidation step) = the final cross-linking between peptide side chains, mediated by transpeptidase (penicillin-binding protein; PBPs).
Bacitracin:
Inhibits release of the muropeptide subunits of peptidoglycan from the lipid carrier molecule that carries the subunit to the outside of the membrane.
Cycloserine:
Inhibits synthesis of D-Ala, which is required for the synthesis of the NAG-pentapeptide.
Vancomycin:
Recognizes and binds to the two D-Ala residues on the end of the peptide chains and prevents the synthesis of long polymers of NAM-NAG and the cross-linking of them.
Bacterial Growth Curve
Lag Phase:
—Growth is not detectable. The cells are active in adjusting the levels of vital cellular constituents necessary for growth in the new medium.
Log (Exponential) Phase:
—Constant, maximal growth rate. The generation time is constant.
—Penicillin works only in this phase b/c this is when cell walls are being synthesized.
Stationary Phase:
—When a required nutrient becomes exhausted or the concentration of toxic waste products becomes too high, growth stops.
Sporulation
Clostridium and Bacillus:
—The only medically important bacteria species that form spores.
—Clostridium: terminal endospores.
—Bacillus: central endospores.
Spores survive adverse conditions.
Germination under appropriate environmental conditions.
Sterilization requires High Heat and Pressure.
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Differences
and
Potential targets for antibiotics?
Size: Avg size 1-10 micron; 10-100 micron Nucleus: Nucleoid (no membrane); Membrane-bound Chromosomes: Single circular loop of naked DNA; Linear, arranged with Histones Organelles: Absent Present, various functions Ribosomes: Present, small: 70S Present, large: 80S Cell wall: Present Absent
Potential targets for antibiotics:
Ribosomes and Cell wall
Factors that Contribute to High Frequency of Mutations in Bacteria
Rapid Growth
Selections
Haploidy
—Thus, mutations are dominant, rather than selective
DNA Replication in Bacteria
Replication begins @ origin of replication.
Two replication forks proceed in opposite directions until they meet at the replication termination site (ter).
Cell division by Binary Fission
Doubling time for E. coli = 20 min
DNA Replication = 40 min
Daughter strand in E. coli begins replication before cell division is complete.
Mycobacterium doubling time = 24 hours.
—Thus, culturing M. tuberculosis takes too long for the purposes of diagnosis.
Bacterial Chromosoms are Circular:
—Otherwise, if they were linear, they would require a telomere, which is present in human cells to protect the ends of the DNA and facilitate replication of the ends.
Prokaryotic Replication Fork
DNA Gyrase:
—Responsible for supercoiling bacteria DNA, to get it back into the nucleoid region of the cell after synthesis.
—Quinolone antibiotics target DNA Gyrase. (Quinolones, e.g. floxocin and nalidixic acid)
RNA Polymerase:
—Function is lagging strand synthesis.
—Rifampin targets RNA Polymerase
Binary Fission
Binary Fission
1) Begins with DNA synthesis at origin of replication.
2) Parent cell enlarges: Volume, Cell membrane, and Cell wall.
3) Notches develop in cell wall as chromosome is replicated and attached.
—Cell Wall is responsible for segregating and separating the cell into two. (In humans, the centrosomes and spindles do this.)
4) Septum grows inward to divide cell and chromosome moves towards center.
5) Septum is completed, membrane repaired, and cells either separate or remain together (diplo- or tetrad- configuration)
Ribosomes Targeted by Antibiotics
Ribosomes Targeted by Antibiotics
Small (30s) Subunit:
—Aminoglycosides: Block initiation of translation and cause misreading of mRNA
—Tetracyclines: Block attachment of tRNA to the ribosome
—Streptogramins: Interfere with certain steps of protein synthesis
Large (50s) Subunit:
—Macrolides: Prevent the continuation of protein synthesis. *Erythromycin
—Chloramphenicol: Prevents peptide bonds from being formed
—Lincosamides: Prevent continuation of protein synthesis
—Oxazolidinones: Interfere with initiation of protein synthesis
Ribosomes in Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
Ribosome: 70s (Pro), 80s (Euk)
Small subunit: 30s (Pro), 40s (Euk)
Large subunit: 50s (Pro), 60s (Euk)
Transcription and Translation in Bacteria vs. Humans
Transcription and Translation are coupled in bacteria. This cannot occur in human cells because those two process occur at different locations.
Causes of Mutation
Causes of Mutation:
—Spontaneous mutation:
-Errors in DNA replication
-Spontaneous lesions
-Transposable genetic elements (insertion sequence, IS)
—Induced mutation:
-Chemicals
-Ultraviolet radiation induces Thymine dimerization. Hence why sun exposure causes skin cancers.
-X-rays induce single- and double-stranded breaks
Transversion Mutation
Single Base Changes:
—Transversion: Purine and Pyrimidine base exchange
—Transition: Purine to Purine or Pyrimidine to Pyrimidine base change
Transition Mutation
Single Base Changes:
—Transversion: Purine and Pyrimidine base exchange
—Transition: Purine to Purine or Pyrimidine to Pyrimidine base change
Replacement Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Micro-deletion Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Micro-insertion Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Deletion Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Insertion Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Inversion Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Duplication Mutation
Types of Mutations in Nucleotide Sequence
Replacement: One base change. Note: This type of mutation cannot cause a frameshift.
Microdeletion: Removal of a single base pair
Microinsertion: Addition of a single base pair
Deletion: Removal of segment of many base pairs
Insertion: Addition of segment of many base pairs
Inversion: Change the direction of a DNA segment
Duplication: Addition of a redundant DNA segment
Silent Mutation
Types of Mutations according to the Codon changes
Silent mutation: Mutations without amino acid sequence change
Missense mutation: Point mutation that produces an altered amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
Frameshift mutation: Mutation that shifts the way the sequence is read. Note: Cannot be caused by a replacement mutation.
Polar mutation: Nonsense mutation that blocks the transcription of the downstream genes
Missense Mutation
Types of Mutations according to the Codon changes
Silent mutation: Mutations without amino acid sequence change
Missense mutation: Point mutation that produces an altered amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
Frameshift mutation: Mutation that shifts the way the sequence is read. Note: Cannot be caused by a replacement mutation.
Polar mutation: Nonsense mutation that blocks the transcription of the downstream genes
Nonsense Mutation
Types of Mutations according to the Codon changes
Silent mutation: Mutations without amino acid sequence change
Missense mutation: Point mutation that produces an altered amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
Frameshift mutation: Mutation that shifts the way the sequence is read. Note: Cannot be caused by a replacement mutation.
Polar mutation: Nonsense mutation that blocks the transcription of the downstream genes
Frameshift Mutation
Types of Mutations according to the Codon changes
Silent mutation: Mutations without amino acid sequence change
Missense mutation: Point mutation that produces an altered amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
Frameshift mutation: Mutation that shifts the way the sequence is read. Note: Cannot be caused by a replacement mutation.
Polar mutation: Nonsense mutation that blocks the transcription of the downstream genes
Polar Mutation
Types of Mutations according to the Codon changes
Silent mutation: Mutations without amino acid sequence change
Missense mutation: Point mutation that produces an altered amino acid
Nonsense mutation: Point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
Frameshift mutation: Mutation that shifts the way the sequence is read. Note: Cannot be caused by a replacement mutation.
Polar mutation: Nonsense mutation that blocks the transcription of the downstream genes
Recombination
Process by which nucleic acid molecules from different sources are combined or rearranged to produce a new nucleotide sequence.
Recombination occurs in
—Meiosis in eukaryotic cells
—DNA damage repair
Elements for homologues recombination:
—Donor DNA with identical or similar sequence
—Relevant enzymes (RecA…)
—Mutation
Site-specific Recombination:
—Integration of Virus genome into host chromosomes
—Limited DNA sequence similarity at the sites of crossover
—Enzymes encoded by exogenous genes recognize a unique DNA sequence
Transposable Elements
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Insertion Sequence
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Composite Transposon
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Replicative Transposon
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Simple Transposition
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Replicative Transposition
Transposable Elements: Genetic units capable of mediating their own transfer from one chromosome to another, from one location to another on the same chromosome, or between chromosome and plasmid.
Direct repeats (DRs) in the host DNA flank a transposable element.
Transposable Elements:
—Insertion Sequence (IS): Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene
IS-mediated transposition results in frameshift.
—Composite Transposon: Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + other genes (functional genes, e.g. those that confer drug resistance)
—Replicative Transposon:
Inverted Repeats (IRs) + Transposase gene + Resolvase gene
Replicative transposition leaves a copy of the transposon at its original site after transposition.
Simple Transposition
1) Transposase-mediated release
2) Transposase-mediated cleavage of DNA at the New site
3) Insertion
4) DNA gap repair
Transformation
Genetic Exchange: 1) Transformation
The release of DNA into the environment by the Lysis of some cells.
Direct DNA uptake by “Competent” recipient cells.
The fat of the exogenote DNA: Degradation or Recombination
Natural Competent: The competent state that allows uptake of “naked DNA.”
Example: Streptococcus pneumoniae expresses DNA-binding proteins on the cell surface when in stationary phase growth conditions to recycle precursor molecules.
Artificial Competent: Artificially induced competence due to increased membrane permeability. Frequently used in research labs. (Ca2+, heat shock, PEG, electroporation).
Transduction
Genetic Exchange: 2) Transduction
Transduction: The transfer of genetic information from donor cell to recipient cell by Viruses of bacteria (Bacteriophage/Phage).
Specialized Transduction: The genes that can be transduced are adjacent to a special site in the bacterial genome.
Generalized Transduction: The genes from the host cells are packed into the phages in a nonspecific way.
Lysogenic Cycle of Transduction
Lysogenic Pathway: Phage DNA is integrated into the genome of the infected cells. Prophage (quiescent form of phage); Lysogeny (Bacterial cells harboring a latent prophage).
Lysogenic Cycle: Allows the genome of the virus to be replicated passively as the host cell’s genome is replicated. Certain environmental factors such as UV light can cause a switch from the lysogenic cycle to the lytic cycle.
Lytic Pathway: Causes lysis of the host bacterial cell as phages duplicate inside the cell. The phage DNA replicates separately from the host bacterial DNA.
Lytic Cycle: New virus particles are made and released when the host cell lyses. Virulent phages are limited to just the lytic cycle.
Lytic Cycle of Transduction
Lysogenic Pathway: Phage DNA is integrated into the genome of the infected cells. Prophage (quiescent form of phage); Lysogeny (Bacterial cells harboring a latent prophage).
Lysogenic Cycle: Allows the genome of the virus to be replicated passively as the host cell’s genome is replicated. Certain environmental factors such as UV light can cause a switch from the lysogenic cycle to the lytic cycle.
Lytic Pathway: Causes lysis of the host bacterial cell as phages duplicate inside the cell. The phage DNA replicates separately from the host bacterial DNA.
Lytic Cycle: New virus particles are made and released when the host cell lyses. Virulent phages are limited to just the lytic cycle.
Conjugation
Genetic Exchange: 3) Conjugation
Bacterial “sex” or mating.
Exchange of genetic information (Plasmids) through a hollow tube, the Sex Pilus, from the F+ donor cell to the F- recipient bacterial cell.
F factor (Conjugative Plasmid): Contains genes required for the process of transfer. Has a narrow host range.
Nonconjugative Plasmid: Can be transferred with conjugative plasmid.
Plasmids: Circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosome.
- Can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA.
- The copy number in a cell ranges from one to thousands.
- R plasmid: confers resistance to antibiotics or toxin, metals.
Plasmids
Genetic Exchange: 3) Conjugation
Bacterial “sex” or mating.
Exchange of genetic information (Plasmids) through a hollow tube, the Sex Pilus, from the F+ donor cell to the F- recipient bacterial cell.
F factor (Conjugative Plasmid): Contains genes required for the process of transfer. Has a narrow host range.
Nonconjugative Plasmid: Can be transferred with conjugative plasmid.
Plasmids: Circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosome.
- Can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA.
- The copy number in a cell ranges from one to thousands.
- R plasmid: confers resistance to antibiotics or toxin, metals.
F Factor (Conjugative Plasmid)
Genetic Exchange: 3) Conjugation
Bacterial “sex” or mating.
Exchange of genetic information (Plasmids) through a hollow tube, the Sex Pilus, from the F+ donor cell to the F- recipient bacterial cell.
F factor (Conjugative Plasmid): Contains genes required for the process of transfer. Has a narrow host range.
Nonconjugative Plasmid: Can be transferred with conjugative plasmid.
Plasmids: Circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosome.
- Can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA.
- The copy number in a cell ranges from one to thousands.
- R plasmid: confers resistance to antibiotics or toxin, metals.
Nonconjugative Plasmid
Genetic Exchange: 3) Conjugation
Bacterial “sex” or mating.
Exchange of genetic information (Plasmids) through a hollow tube, the Sex Pilus, from the F+ donor cell to the F- recipient bacterial cell.
F factor (Conjugative Plasmid): Contains genes required for the process of transfer. Has a narrow host range.
Nonconjugative Plasmid: Can be transferred with conjugative plasmid.
Plasmids: Circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosome.
- Can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA.
- The copy number in a cell ranges from one to thousands.
- R plasmid: confers resistance to antibiotics or toxin, metals.
R plasmid
Genetic Exchange: 3) Conjugation
Bacterial “sex” or mating.
Exchange of genetic information (Plasmids) through a hollow tube, the Sex Pilus, from the F+ donor cell to the F- recipient bacterial cell.
F factor (Conjugative Plasmid): Contains genes required for the process of transfer. Has a narrow host range.
Nonconjugative Plasmid: Can be transferred with conjugative plasmid.
Plasmids: Circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosome.
- Can replicate independently of chromosomal DNA.
- The copy number in a cell ranges from one to thousands.
- R plasmid: confers resistance to antibiotics or toxin, metals.
Steps of Conjugation
1) F+ donor cell with Conjugative Plasmid donates one of the two strand through the pilus.
2) Meanwhile, a complementary strand is synthesized on the original plasmid and on the donated strand and the plasmids returns to a circle shape.
3) If the synthesized double-stranded DNA remains in fragments, it will be either integrated into the bacterial genome (recombined) or it will be destroyed.
Vector
Vector and Genetic Engineering
Basic elements in a vector:
—An origin for DNA replication
—A multiple cloning site (polylinker) containing several commonly used restriction enzyme sites.
—A drug resistant marker (antibiotic resistance)
—Insertion of desired nucleotide sequence.
Applications in medicine:
—Biomedical research
—Produces large amount of proteins:
Insulin for diabetes. (Insulin was originally extracted from pig pancreases.)
Growth hormone for the treatment of GH deficiency.
Vaccine: To generate non-virulent virus
—Gene therapy
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Requirements:
—DNA Template: containing the target sequence
—DNA Polymerase: that synthesizes DNA
They can generate new strands of DNA using a DNA template and primers.
They are heat resistant.
—Primers: Short pieces of single-stranded DNA that are complementary to the target sequence.
—Nucleotides (dNTPs): Single units of the bases A, T, G, C.
Clinical Applications of PCR:
—Early diagnosis of Malignancies (e.g. Leukemias, Lymphomas)
—Detection and Identification of non-cultivatable or slow-growing bacterial agents.
—Detection of viral infections and quantification of patient’s Viral Load
