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biology > B6 > Flashcards

B6 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards
1
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

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2
Q

What shape is DNA?

A

Double helix

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3
Q

Why is understanding the human genome important?

A
  • allows scientists to identify genes that are inked to different diseases
  • linking to inherited diseases and helps develop treatments for them
  • trace past human migration patterns
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4
Q

What is a nucleotide?

A

Repeating units

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5
Q

What are the 3 things as part of a DNA strand?

A

a phosphate, sugar and a base

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6
Q

What does the mRNA carry and to where?

A

Carries code to the ribosomes

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7
Q

Where are proteins made?

A

In the cell cytoplasm on ribosomes

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8
Q

Where is the DNA of a cell found?

A

Nucleus

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9
Q

How does the code move from the nucleus to teh ribosome using mRNA?

A

The code of the DNA is copied then mRNA acts as a messenger and carries the code between the nucleus and ribosomes

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10
Q

The correct what are brought to the ribosomes in the correct order by carrier molecules?

A

amino acids

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11
Q

What are 3 types of proteins?

A

Enzymes-biological catalyst to speed up a reaction
Hormones-carries chemical messages around the body (insulin)
Structural proteins-are physically strong (collagen)

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12
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A change in an organisms DNA

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13
Q

What does a mutation do?

A

Change in the sequence of DNA bases in a gene

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14
Q

What happens if the active site of an enzyme changes?

A

The substrate will no longer fit or bind to it

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15
Q

How many DNA bases code for an amino acid?

A

3

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16
Q

What are insertions mutations?

A

Where a new base is inserted into the DNA base sequence where it shouldn’t be

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17
Q

What are deletions mutations?

A

When a random base is deleted from the DNA base sequence

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18
Q

What are substitution mutations

A

When a random base in the DNA base sequence is changed to a different base

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19
Q

What does sexual reproduction involve the fusion of?

A

male and female gametes with an offspring containing a mixture of their parents’ genes

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20
Q

How many chromosomes does each gamete have?

A

23 chromosomes

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21
Q

Does sexual reproduction use meiosis or mitosis?

A

Meiosis

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22
Q

What type of cells does sexual reproduction produce?

A

Genetically different cells

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23
Q

What type of cells are produce in asexual reproduction?

A

genetically identical cells

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24
Q

How many parents are their in asexual reproduction?

A

1 parent

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25
Q

Does asexual reproduction use mitosis or meiosis?

A

Mitosis

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26
Q

How can offspring of asexual reproduction be described as if they are genetically identical?

A

They are clones, there is no genetic variation

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27
Q

How many gametes are made by meiosis?

A

4 that are all genetically different

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28
Q

What do cells start to do as the embryo develops?

A

Differentiate

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29
Q

What are some advantages of sexual reproduction?

A

Variation in offspring which increases the chance of survival if the environment changes
These individuals with the advantageous alleles are more likely to breed successfully and pass on the characteristics = natural selection
Selective breeding speed up natural selection

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30
Q

What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

A

Only one parent so organisms don’t have to find a mate which also means it is faster than sexual reproduction
Many identical offspring can be produced in favourable conditions

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31
Q

What are some examples of organisms that reproduce both asexually and sexually?

A

Malaria, fungus, plants such as strawberries and daffodils

32
Q

Which chromosomes do males have?

A

X and Y

33
Q

What chromosomes do females have?

A

X and X

34
Q

Which combination leads to a female offspring?

A

XX

35
Q

What combination leads to having male offspring?

A

XY

36
Q

What is your genotype?

A

The combination of alleles you have

37
Q

What is your phenotype?

A

Alleles that determine what characteristics you have

38
Q

What does homozygous mean?

A

Two of the same alleles

39
Q

What does heterozygous mean?

A

Two different alleles

40
Q

Which allele is Cystic Fibrosis caused by?

A

A recessive allele

41
Q

Which allele is Polydactyly caused by?

A

a dominant allele

42
Q

What are some arguments against embryonic screening?

A

It implies people with genetic problems are ‘undesirable’
There may be a point when everyone wants to screen their embryos so they can pick the most ‘desierable’
Screening is expensive

43
Q

What are some arguments for embryonic screening?

A

It will help stop people suffering
Treating disorders costs the government a lot of money
There are laws to stop it going too far

44
Q

What were Mendel’s 3 important conclusions?

A

Characteristics in plants are determined by ‘heredity units’
hereditary units are passed on to offspring unchanged from both parents, one unit each
Hereditary units can be recessive or dominant

45
Q

What are the 2 types of variation?

A

genetic variation and environmental variation

46
Q

Two organism are a different species if they produce what?

A

Infertile offspring, like a mule

47
Q

What is teh theory of evolution?

A

All of today’s species gave evolved from simple life forms that first started to develop over 3 billion years ago

48
Q

What is the development of a new species called?

A

Speciation

49
Q

Over a long period of time the phenotype of organisms change so much because of natural selection that a completely new what is formed?

A

New species

50
Q

What are some reasons for why species become extinct?

A
  • Environment changes too quickly
  • New predator kills them
  • New disease kills them
  • Can’t compete with other new species for food
  • A catastrophic event happens that kills them all
51
Q

What 3 reasons did people not agree with Darwin at the time?

A
  • it went against common religious belief of how life developed on Earth
  • Darwin couldn’t explain these useful characteristics appeared or how they were passed on to offspring
  • there wasn’t enough evidence to convince other scientists
52
Q

What was Lamarck’s hypothesis?

A

Changes the organisms acquired in its lifetime would be passed on to its offspring

53
Q

Why was Lamarck’s hypothesis eventually rejected?

A

Because experiments didn’t support his hypothesis. If you dye a hamsters fur pink its offspring will still have the original fur colour

54
Q

What discovery supported Darwin’s hypothesis and why?

A

Discovery of genetics because it provided an explanation of how beneficial characteristics were passed on

55
Q

What are 4 examples of benefits of selective breeding?

A
  • Animals produce more meat or milk
  • Crops develop disease resistance
  • Animals with good temperament (dogs)
  • Decorative plants with big/unusual flowers
56
Q

What is the basics of selective breeding?

A

select the desired characteristics from the existing stock
breed them
select the best of the offspring and breed them together
continue this process over several generations so the desirable trait will get stronger until eventually all offspring will have that characteristic

57
Q

What can selective breeding be used for in agriculture to improve?

A

-increased yields

58
Q

What is the main downside of selective breeding?

A

It reduces the gene pool and causes inbreeding

59
Q

So what happens if there is a reduction of the number of different alleles?

A

Less chance of any resistant alleles being present in the population so if a new disease appears then there isn’t much variation = very likely to be killed

60
Q

What is the basic idea of genetic engineering?

A

To transfer a gene responsible for a desirable characteristic

61
Q

Explain how the useful gene in genetic engineering is taken

A

Useful gene is isolated and cut out using enzymes and inserted into a vector
when the vector is introduced to the target organism the useful gene is inserted into its cells

62
Q

What has been genetically modified to produce human insulin to treat diabetes?

A

Bacteria

63
Q

GM crops are modified to make them resistant to what and to improve what?

A

Resistant to diseases, insects and herbicides and to improve the size and quality of fruit

64
Q

What are the cons of GM crops?

A

Growing GM crops might affect the number of wild flowers
Not everyone is convinced that GM crops are safe and worried about the effect on human health
Concern of transplanted genes getting into the natural environment (possible create a ‘superweed’ resistant to herbicides)

65
Q

What are the pros for GM crops?

A

They increased the yield
People who have a lack of nutrients can get the missing nutrients that they need
GM crops are already being grown in places with no problems

66
Q

What are two ways plants can be cloned?

A

Tissue culture or cuttings

67
Q

What is tissue culture?

A

Where a few plant cells are put in a growth medium with hormones to grow into new plants

68
Q

How can plants be cloned by taking cuttings?

A

Take cutting from the parent plants and plant them to produce genetically identical copies

69
Q

What are the pros of tissue culture?

A

The plants can be made very quickly in very little space all year round
It can be used to preserve rare plants that are hard to produce naturally

70
Q

What are the pros for taking cuttings to produce more plants?

A

They’re produced quickly and cheaply but it is an older, simpler method than tissue culture

71
Q

|What can you use to make animal clone?

A

Using embryo transplants

72
Q

Describe how embryo transplants produce ‘ideal’ offspring using a bull and a cow

A

Sperm cells taken from the prized bull and egg cells taken from the prized cow which is artificially fertilised
The embryo that develops splits many times before any cells become specialised
The cloned embryos are implanted into many other cows (surrogate mothers)
Hundreds of ‘ideal’ offspring are produced

73
Q

What does adult cell cloning involve?

A

Taking an unfertilised egg cell and removing the nucleus
The nucleus is removed from an adult body cell and inserted into the empty egg cell
The egg cell is then stimulated by an electric shock which makes it divide like a normal embryo
It is then implanted into the womb of an adult female and grows a genetically identical clone of the adult body cell (same genetic information)

74
Q

What are some issues with cloning

A

You get a reduced gene pool so there is less resistance to new diseases
Cloned animals might not be as healthy as normal ones (Dolly the sheep had arthritis)
Some people worry humans might be cloned in the future which might lead to children born severely disabled

75
Q

What are some pros with cloning?

A

It could lead to a greater understanding of the development of the embryo and of aging and age related diseases
Cloning could be used to help preserve endangered species

76
Q

What are the 3 ways fossils can be formed by?

A

Gradual replacement by minerals
casts and impressions
Preservation in places where no decay happens

biology (6 decks)

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