B5 Health and Disease Flashcards
1
Q
Define
health.
A
the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
2
Q
Define
physical wellbeing.
A
being free from disease, eating and sleeping well, getting regular activity and limiting the intake of harmful substances such as alcohol and other drugs
3
Q
Define
mental wellbeing.
A
how you feel about yourself
4
Q
Define
social wellbeing.
A
how well you get on with other people and also how your surroundings affect you
5
Q
Define
communicable disease.
A
a disease, such as flu, that is caused by pathogens that can be passed from an infected individual to others
6
Q
Define
non-communicable disease.
A
a disease, such as heart disease, that is caused by problems in the body and cannot be passed to people near you
7
Q
What are the
stages of liver damage?
A
healthy liver > fatty liver > liver fibrosis > cirrhosis
8
Q
Why is a cirrhotic liver bad?
A
it does not function well and can result in death
9
Q
Define
malnutrition.
A
not getting the right amount of calories and/or not getting the correct balance of nutrients
10
Q
What is obesity caused by?
A
a diet that is high in sugar and fats where large amounts of fat are formed under the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys
11
Q
What can obesity lead to?
A
many diseases, such as cardiovascular disease which may lead to a heart attack
12
Q
When does a heart attack happen?
A
When a coronary artery gets blocked
A build up of fatty diposits in the walls of the arteries can reduce the amount of blood flow to the heart. A clot can form at these build-ups and stop the blood from flowing to a part of the heart - so a heart attack begins.
13
Q
Why are heart attacks bad?
A
Glucose and oxygen (that are carried by blood) can no longer get past the blockage and that part of the heart may now be damaged, struggle to beat and eventually die.
14
Q
What factors increase the chances of having a heart attack?
A
- diet
- stress
- smoking
15
Q
What is the formula for BMI?
A
weight(kg) / (height(m))^2
16
Q
What BMI is classifed as obese?
A
an adult with BMI >30
17
Q
What fat is most closely linked to cardiovascular disease?
A
abdominal fat
18
Q
What is the equation for waist:hip calculations?
A
waist measurement / hip measurement
this can give a better method of measuring abdominal fat than BMI
19
Q
What WHR increases the risk for heart disease and other conditions?
A
1.0 or higher in both men and women
20
Q
Why is smoking bad for you?
A
Tobacco contains many harmful substances that can damage the lungs when they are breathed in.
Some of these substances are absorbed from the lungs into the blood and transported around the body.
These substances can damage blood vessels, increase blood pressure, make blood vessels narrower and increase the risk of blood clots forming in blood vessels.
21
Q
How is cardiovascular disease treated?
A
With a combination of lifestyle changes, medicine and, in some cases, surgery.
22
Q
What are some examples of lifestyle changes?
(to treat cardiovascular disease)
(to reduce the risk of future episodes)
A
- stop smoking
- exercise
- eat healthily
23
Q
What are some examples of surgery?
(to treat cardiovascular disease)
(usually determined by an aniogram)
A
- by-pass surgery
- angioplasty
- heart transplant
24
Q
What are some examples of medicine?
(to treat cardiovascular disease)
(to reduce blood pressure/widen arteries)
A
- aspirin (antiplatelet)
- statin (cholesterol)
- beta blockers (prevent angina and treat high blood pressure)
- vasodilators (nitrates which relax blood vessels, widening them)
- ACE inhibtors (block the activity of a hormone called angiotensin II, which causes the blood vessels to narrow)
25
# What is an
angiogram?
a type of X-ray used to examine blood vessels
26
# Define
pathogen.
a microorganism which causes disease
27
What are some examples of pathogens?
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists
28
What are some properties of bacteria?
| and some diseases they cause
- unicellular
- prokaryotic (no nucleus)
| food poisoning, lime's disease, TB
29
What are some properties of viruses?
| and some diseases they cause
- non-cellular
- genetic material
- protein coat
- (non-living?)
| covid, common cold, influenza, AIDs
30
What are some properties of fungi?
| and some diseases they cause
- both multicellular and unicellular
- eukaryotic
| athlete's foot, ringworm, thrush
31
What are some properties of protists?
| and some diseases they cause
- unicellular
- eukaryotic
| malaria
32
What is cholera caused by?
a bacteria
| (*Vibrio cholerae*)
33
What does cholera infection result in?
diarrhoea, which can cause death
| (large amounts of very watery faeces)
34
Where does cholera occur?
where drinking water is not kept seperate from human waste
| e.g. in emergency camps after a disaster
35
How is the cholera bacterium spread?
**faeces** from a patient coming into contact with food or water and **being ingested**
36
How can cholera be prevented?
- vaccine
- sanitation
- boil water
- wash hands
- avoid uncooked food
37
What is tuberculosis caused by?
| (TB)
a bacteria
| (*Mycobacterium tuberculosis*)
## Footnote
(which infects the lungs)
38
How is tuberculosis spread?
| (TB)
through **droplets in the air** resulting from **coughs** and **sneezes**
| these spread easily when people live close together
39
What does tuberculosis lead to?
| (TB)
*can* lead to **death**
40
What symptoms does tuberculosis cause?
| (TB)
- coughing up blood
- weight loss
- fever
41
How can the spread of tuberculosis be reduced/prevented?
| (TB)
- vaccination
- wear a mask
- isolate the infected person
42
What does the disease chalara dieback affect?
ash trees
43
What is chalara dieback caused by?
a fungus
| (*Hymenoscyphus fraxineus*)
44
What does chalara infection cause?
**leaf loss** in the bark of the trees and **dieback** (when the leaves on the ends of branches die first, before infection spreads to the rest of the branch)
45
What is malaria caused by?
a protist
46
What does malaria do?
**infects** and **damages** red blood cells and liver cells.
47
What are mosquitos in relation to malaria?
vectors
| they drink the infected blood and spread it from person to person
48
How can the spread of malaria be reduced or prevented?
mosquito nets, anti malarial medicine
49
What is HIV caused by?
| (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
a virus
50
What does HIV do?
| (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
it **destroys T cells**, leading to **AIDS**
HIV damages the cells in your **immune system** and weakens your ability to fight everyday infections and disease
| (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
51
How can HIV be transmitted?
| (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
- unprotected sex
- used needles
- childbirth
- breast milk
52
What are the symptoms of HIV?
there aren't any
53
Is there a cure for HIV?
| (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
no
| :(
54
What are stomach ulcers caused by?
a bacteria
| (*Helicobacter pylori*)
55
What happens when *Helicobacter pylori* is in a patient's stomach?
although 50% of people have this bacteria in their stomach, only **20% develop sore areas (ulcers) where the bacteria attack the stomach lining**
56
What causes ebola?
a virus
57
How does ebola affect the patient?
It causes the **breakdown of blood vessels**, **kidney cells** and the **liver**. This leads to **internal bleeding** (haemorrhaging) and **fever**.
58
How is ebola transmitted?
via bodily fluids - specifically blood
59
What is the basic structure of all viruses?
- **one or more strands of genetic material** (DNA or RNA)
- **surrounded by a protein coat** (capsid)
- many viruses have an additional layer called an envelope
60
Why can't viruses replicate outside a living cell?
Because viruses need the cell machinery (e.g. ribosomes) to make copies of themselves.
61
What are the two types of virus lifecycles?
lytic and lysogenic pathways
62
What happens in the lysogenic pathway?
the virus's genetic material is inserted into the cell's genetic material and copied at the same time
| no new viruses are made
63
What happens in the lytic pathway?
many copies of the virus's genetic material are made seperately from the cell's genetic material
| many new viruses are made
64
How can we study the effect of viruses?
using bacterial lawn plates
| (bacteria grown on nutrient agar)
## Footnote
viruses are added and after a day or two, clear circles can be seen where bacteria have been killed by the viruses
65
How is a thick cuticle a method of plant defence?
It makes the leaf **tougher to eat** and **more difficult** for **pathogens** to get into the leaf cells. The cuticle also contains **wax**. This helps water (which may contain pathogens) run off easily.
66
What type of plant defence is a thick cuticle?
physical
67
How are hairy leaves, stems or thorns a method of plant defence?
- they **put herbivores off**
- they make it **more difficult for pathogens** to get to the leaf surface
| some plants have additional adaptations to their hairs
## Footnote
e.g. nettle leaves and stems have hairs that contain a substance which irritates skin
68
What type of plant defence are hairs and thorns?
physical
| but can release chemicals in some instances (e.g. nettles)
69
How is bark a method of plant defence?
- it helps to **protect the trunk from cold** in winter, **or drought** during the summer
- bark contains substances that are poisonous to many herbivores
| (tannin)
70
What type of plant defence is bark?
physical and chemical
71
How are cell walls a method of plant defence?
cell walls are **thick** and contain substances that make it difficult for most **pathogens** to get into the cell
72
What type of plant defence are cell walls?
physical and chemical
73
How are lectins a method of plant defence?
- **lectins bind to carbohydrates**
- they **reduce** the amount of **carbohydrate that the herbivore can absorb** from what it eats
- lectins also **interfere with reactions involving carbohydrates in the animal's body**, which causes harm
| lectins are sometimes sprayed on crops
74
What type of plant defence are lectins?
chemical
75
# Define
symptom.
something that you feel as a result of a disease
76
What does aspirin do?
controls the symptoms of pain or fever
77
Where did aspirin come from?
it was originally produced from **salicylic acid** which is made by several plants including **willow trees**
78
What does artemisinin do?
it kills the *Plasmodium* protists that cause malaria
79
Where did artemisinin come from?
it was originally extracted from the wormwood plant
80
# Define
aseptic technique.
using practices and procedures to prevent contamination from pathogens
81
What are the three different types of yellow leaves?
- **too little water**
- **magnesium deficiency**
- **fungal infection** by tomato leaf mould
82
What are the visible symptoms of too little water?
| (in plants)
**yellow leaves** that start **from the bottom** of the plant
83
What are the visible symptoms of magnesium deficiency?
| (in plants)
**yellow leaves** with plant '**veins**' showing
84
What are the visible symptoms of fungal infection?
| (in plants)
spotty/**patchy yellow**/brown **leaves**
85
How could the **distribution** of plants with **yellow leaves** help to **identify** the problem as a **lack of water**?
generally all of the plants near it would have yellow leaves
86
How could the **distribution** of plants with **yellow leaves** help to **identify** the problem as a **lack of magnesium**?
all of the plants near it would be affected
| because it is due to the soil
87
How could the **distribution** of plants with **yellow** leaves help to **identify** the problem as a **fungal infection**?
yellow leaves would spread **widely** (and further than the other two), especially **along** the **wind direction**
88
What **lab or field test** could confirm the cause of **yellow leaves** to be **lack of water**?
a soil moisture test
89
What **lab or field test** could confirm the cause of **yellow leaves** to be **magnesium deficiency**?
a soil test
| (to test for nutrients)
90
What **lab or field test** could confirm the cause of **yellow leaves** to be **fungal infection**?
a DNA test
| (of the plant)
91
What are the two causes of curled leaves?
| (in plants)
- tomato leaf curl virus
- contamination of soil with weedkiller
92
How could the **distribution** of plants with **curled leaves** help to **identify** the problem as leaf curl virus?
the infected plants should spread over time to non-neighbouring plants in different fields
93
How could the **distribution** of plants with **curled leaves** help to **identify** the problem as **weedkiller in soil**?
the infection should affect all neighbouring plants with the weedkiller in its soil
94
What **lab or field test** could confirm the cause of **curled leaves** to be **leaf curl virus**?
genetic analysis in a lab
95
What **lab or field test** could confirm the cause of **curled leaves** to be **weedkiller in soil**?
a soil lab test
96
Why is blood clotting useful if we cut ourselves?
- **it prevents too much blood loss**, and blood is necessary to transport oxygen (and glucose) around the body
- **it prevents the cut from getting infected**
- **it turns into a scab to help the wound heal**
97
What chemical defences do human bodies have?
- **liquid** on eyes
- **mucus** in nose
- **ear wax** in ears
- **saliva** in mouth
- **stomach acid** in stomach
- **acidic** in genitals
98
What physical defences do human bodies have?
- **liquid** on eyes
- **eyelashes**
- **eyelids**
- **hairs** in nose
- **skin**
99
# Define
Sexually Transmitted Infection
| (STI)
## Footnote
sexually transmitted disease (STD) is the same thing
an infection that is transmitted via bodily fluids through sexual contact
100
What is chlamydia caused by?
a bacteria
101
What age group is chlamydia most common with?
people under 25
| because they are most likely to be having sex and spreading the STI
102
What are the symptoms of chlamydia?
- a burning pain when urinating
- thick yellow or green discharge
- for women it can cause bleeding between periods
- for men it can cause swelling of the testicles
103
If untreated, what can chlamydia lead to?
infertility
104
How is chlamydia treated?
by antibiotics
105
What are the two types of white blood cells in blood?
**phagocytes** and **lymphocytes**
106
What do phagocytes do?
they **engulf bacteria** by *endocytosis* and **digest** them using **enzymes**
107
What do lymphocytes do?
produce antibodies
108
What are antibodies?
**Proteins** that **recognise and bind to specific antigens**. They lock onto antigens leading to the direct **destruction of pathogens by phagocytes**.
109
What is an antigen?
a protein that is found on the surface of a cell that binds to an antibody
110
Why are a huge number of different types of lymphocytes needed?
a lymphocyte can only produce one type of antibody
111
How are lymphocytes activated and what happens when they are?
- the **antigens** of a **pathogen** bind to the **antibodies** in the surface membrane of the **lymphocyte**
- this **activates** the lymphocyte
- the active lymphocyte divides by **mitosis** to produce a **clone** of many **identical cells**
- the clone cells start to produce large quantities of the **same antibody**
- this is the **same** antibody needed to defend against the pathogen
112
Why are many different antibodies stimulated?
because **most** pathogens have more than one **antigen** on their surface so more than one type of **lymphocyte** is needed
| these are called polyclonal antibodies
113
Why is there a much faster reponse if an antigen invades your body a second time?
When **lymphocytes** are dividing during the **primary response**, **some** cells stop dividing and secreting antibody and become **memory cells**. **Large** numbers of memory cells remain in the body for a **long time** and these are capable of producing **large amounts of antibody very quickly** when **stimulated**.
114
How do vaccines work?
- vaccines are **small amounts of dead or inactive** forms of the **pathogen**
- lymphocytes **detect** the pathogen/specific antigen and produce antibodies **specific to the antigen**
- antibodies cause the pathogen to **clump together** and **phagocytes** engulf and digest the pathogen
- most of the lymphocytes that make the antibody die, a few of the stay in the blood, these are called **memory cells**
- if you meet the pathogen again, the memory cells will produce **antibodies** to attack and destroy it **rapidly**
- the pathogen is destroyed **without making you ill**
- you now have **immunity** to the pathogen
115
What are the advantages of immunisation?
- prevents disease
- reduces death rates
- reduces pressure on health services
- combats pandemics
116
What are the disadvantages of immunisation?
- expensive
- health risks
- side effects
- time needed for development and testing
- distribution
- misinformation
117
# Define
herd immunity.
a form of **immunity** that occurs when the **vaccination** of a **significant portion** of a **population** provide **protection** for individuals who have not developed **immunity**
118
How does herd immunity work?
- vaccinated individuals **disrupt** the chain of **infection**
- the **greater the proportion** of the population are **resistant**, the **smaller** the **probability** that a **susceptible individual** will come into contact with an **infectious individual**
119
What are antibiotics?
drugs which are used to treat **bacterial** infections
| that **do not** kill human cells
120
What are the two types of antibiotics?
**bacteriocidal** and **bacteriostatic**
121
What are the differences between the two types of bacteria?
Bacteriocidal - **kills** the bacteria
Bacteriostatic - **slows** down the growth
122
What are the key stages of developing new medicines?
| (including antibiotics)
- discovery
- development
- preclinical testing
- clinical testing
123
What are the stages of development when creating a new medicine?
1. **test the medicine on cells or tissues in a lab** (preclinical) to tell if the medicine has the required effect
2. **test the medicine on animals** (preclinical) to see how the medicine works in a whole body (without risk to humans
3. **test the medicine on a small number of healthy people** (clinical) to check that the medicine is safe and that side effects are small
4. **test the medicine on many people who have the disease** (clinical) to help work out the correct dose and to check for different side effects
124
# Define
antibody.
A **protein** produced by **lymphocytes** in response to and counteracting a **specific antigen**.
They work within the **immune system** to destroy **pathogens** that have entered the **body**.
125
How do pregnancy tests work?
By detecting a **hormone** only produced during **pregnancy**.
They have to be very **sensitive** and use **antibodies** specifically made to match the hormone. They need large amounts of these **identical** antibodies that we call **monoclonal antibodies**.
126
# Describe the process of making
monoclonal antibodies.
1. A particular **antigen** is injected into a **mouse**. The mouse produces **lymphocytes** that make **antibodies** against the antigen.
2. **Cancer cells** are grown in a **culture medium**.
3. The **lymphocyte** cell from the mouse and the **cancer cell** are **fused** together to make a **hybridoma cell**.
127
Why are hybridoma cells good?
they can both **divide** and make **antibodies** against the **injected antigen**
128
What are the disadvantages of chemotherapy and radiotherapy?
they lead to other healthy cells being killed which can have extreme side effects
129
How can monoclonal antibodies help to treat cancer?
**Cancer drugs** can be attached to **monoclonal antibodies** so that they are delivered to just the **cells** that need treating. This reduces the amount of drug needed to kill the cancer cells and reduces the risk of damaging **healthy** cells.
