B4

Question 1

Whatmore (2006) Materialist returns

Answer 1

• connection geo (earth) and bio (life)
• resurfacing more-than-human world
• landscapes co-fabricated human and earth
• humans part non-humanity’s composition

Question 2

Giono (1953)

The man who planted trees

Answer 2

• transformation landscape by one man, Shepard who plants trees - eventually desolate landscape comes to be seen natural forest under protection
• fiction but people believed it - become one greatest stories conservation
• response to the story key

Question 3

Raymond Williams (1976)

Answer 3

• word nature most complex english language
• nature conceals human history held within it - nature reflections humans but humans see it as external to them
• Nature 3 phenomena - essence, force, material
• Nature from a descriptive form to a noun (thing in its own right)
• Nature personified as female
• External nature
• enlightenment / romantic movement idea ideal society

Question 4

Castree (2014)

Answer 4

• tendency to believe there’s a natural world existing separate from our attempts to understand it - we talk about nature, look at nature, do things to it etc. but never seen as part of nature or influenced by it
• nature = social construction

Question 5

N vs S CS

Answer 5

Australia until 1967 aboriginals were classed as flora / fauna not human - see part of nature, not society - from white western understanding nature

Question 6

External Nature CS

Answer 6

National Parks

• US 1872 Yellowstone = world’s first national park (wilderness notions)
• 1920s - 40s conservation ab circling off pristine nature from humans eg. international concern over species loss
• McKibben - we feel need for pristine place, places unaltered by man

Question 7

Olwig (1996)

Answer 7

Nature is a ghost rarely visible under its own name

Question 8

Kipling (1894)

The Jungle Book

Answer 8

one first things to break down human / non-human binary or at least help - popular fiction

Question 9

Descartes (1647)

Answer 9

• cartesian dualisms
• body / mind (soul) - body material, works like machine, performs physical functions vs mind or soul non material, reason and intelligence

Question 10

Marx (1967)

Answer 10

• humans transform material nature into new material forms
• but at same time humans transform themselves in process transformation nature
• thus dynamic process transformation material nature + human society together

Question 11

Smith (1984)

Answer 11

• humans produce new altered forms of nature or second nature
• production is uneven process that dictates an uneven society eg. difference material resources available different groups

Question 12

Latour

Answer 12

• reality consists hybrid social / natural phenomena
• society and nature are unnecessary categories as are hybrid
  Actor network theory
• Quasi-objects or hybrids - human and nature actors together - actors exist result networks (network draws things into being)
• refuses binary human/nature
• wolf = quasi-object - existence relies science studies them
• Principle symmetry - locate explanation quasi - both human and nature - eg. climate change human and biophysical
• Hybridity

Question 13

Social constructionism CS

Answer 13

Clayaquot Sound

• First Nations community coastline - removed to reserves C20th (erased, seen as dying race - harmony with nature epistemology)
• vs mediation through silviculture - tree farming, max productivity
• political contest 1990s
• Environmentalists (beauty, aesthetics) vs resource communities (livelihoods)

Question 14

Delaney (2003)

Law and Nature

Answer 14

• legality, law and nature - eg. bestiality - unnatural - vs if see zoophilia = naturalise it, make it medical condition which have no control over - engagement w nature / culture - WHO decides eg. if beast or zoo?
• what means to be human, what is natural?
• naming something is to transform ourselves and society - give meaning to things - cultural device give meaning world and to us - organised around ideas of nature (background on which humans meaningful) - making us different non-human
• baby material product of physical processes but has social meaning - what if dispute whose child name, born genetic defect - materiality may have greater prominence eg. foetus not yet legal attachment
• nature = cultural device to make material world meaningful
• nature politics - into law domain - eg. conflict beach erosion turned into one about property held farmers

Question 15

Societies reliance water + insecurities / vulnerabilities CS

Answer 15

Charles Hatfield

• travelled arid US try make rain (psydoscience - reality showman)
• employed LA city 1914 $10,000 fill reservoir (1915/16 drought) - began rain when he set up - 1916 flooding = $4mn property damage - he would have to take responsibility for damage if did not leave

Question 16

Water facts

Answer 16

• 3% freshwater
• 800mn lack adequate water
• 2.5bn lack adequate sanitation
• 5mn deaths year connected poor water and sanitation services
• 70% water used humans globally on agriculture (22% industry, 8% municipal)
• 1 bn live water stress conditions
• 4bn experience some form water stress annually

Question 17

Water Control Conflict

Answer 17

• Nile Basin

- Israel / Palestine

Question 18

Goubert (1986)

Double conquest of Water

Answer 18

• since industrialisation water = focus of conquest by humans
• but also conquest water over society - water central to economy, we can not live without it

Question 19

Social Drivers of water scarcity - Inequality CS

Kooy and Bakker (2008)

Answer 19

Jakarta, Indonesia

• poorest lack access networked water supply - infrastructure - rely unreliable trucks deliver water - most rely unsafe, expensive, unreliable, informal sources
• water problem = poor governance, inequality and social marginalisation
• only those afford houses connect direct water supply
• high rainfall
• river water reliance = disease
• poorest pay more water than wealthy central system per unit

Question 20

Colorado River CS!

Answer 20

• 7 us states (97% basin), 2 Mexican (3%)
• seasonal flow management challenge
• development 1915-1970 - waters fully allocated 9 states - little reaches mouth
• fierce disputes
• conservationists = symbol everything mankind has done wrong (Reisner 1986)
• triumphant eg. Las Vegas, LA built vs env view bad
• 1800s diversions by irrigators
• Colorado Compact 1922 = basin agreement divide upper / lower basin - Mexico excluded - Arizona not sign - over-allocated water
• Boulder Canyon Act 1928 federal investment dams and canals - funding flood controls, water storage reservoirs, HEP - included creation Hoover dam
• US Mexico no right water vs Mexico claims eg. 1929 - 1944 agreement but US struggles to meet 1.5mn year to Mexico
• $1.4 tr annual economy + $26 bn recreational opportunities eg Grand Canyon
• demand river exceeds supply + more damns planned - add in CC = reduce flow 10-30% 2050
• most endangered river US 2015

Question 21

Harvey 1996

Answer 21

There’s nothing unnatural about New York City

Question 22

CS Nature in city

Answer 22

London

• turtles in waterways eat ducks as pets released into urban waterways
• pigeons at train stations / on tubes

Question 23

Fitzsimmons 1989

Answer 23

urbanisation processes = reconstitution of relationship between humans and material world of everyday life

Question 24

Cronon (1992)

Hinterlands CS

Answer 24

• Chicago + US west agriculture
• agriculture needs city (flow finance for commodity, land / equipment purchase - relies city Urban to Rural investment) - chicago transportation hub - agriculture on stock market
• rural economies rely chicago econ hub but equally city produced off back agriculture - dependent on each other

Question 25

Brenner (2014)

Planetary urbanisation

Answer 25

• critique urban studies focus cities - need consider urbanisation as a process
• implosion (cities) and explosion (global networks)
• connections landscapes and places different scales - local and global linked

Question 26

Planetary Urbanisation CS

Answer 26

Belt and Road Initiative China

• CCP policy - china invest infrastructure link underdevelopment parts china w europe, asia etc. through silk road belt
• reimagination global geog finance, people, trade connected infrastructure - hyper-connected cities and resources

Question 27

Uneven urban landscapes CS

Loftus, 2007

Answer 27

Durban

• apartheid legacy
• informal settlements high costs and disconnections water
• water meters discipline consumption

Question 28

Adam Smith (1776) 
economic liberalism (classical economics)

Answer 28

• understanding of markets as self-regulating towards max efficiency
• allow markets function on own w/o external intervention
• non-market forces (gov regulation, subsidies) scew market away efficiency

Question 29

Chicago School 1970s

neo-classical economics

Answer 29

• push back gov / state strength market control

Question 30

Neoliberalism Figures

Answer 30

Thatcher (79-90)
- lowered taxes, less public expenditure, less power trade unions, miners strike 1984-5, cut subsidies = de-industrialisation, privatisation (eg. Royal Mail)
- no such thing society, only individuals
Reagan (81-89)
- trickle down economics (private capital wealth accumulate trickle down benefit all)
- less gov spending
- reduce tax
- de-regulate
- individual choice

Question 31

NL to post NL transition CS

Answer 31

NL
The Washington Consensus
- US dominance shaping global NL policies and dev agenda - IMF, WB
Post NL / today
- emergence China development practice - investment not entirely market efficiency based
- domestic change - Trump reduce tax, protect business but also protectionist - subsidies US sectors, against liberalisation trade

Question 32

Types of Nature (NL) - Seeds CS

McAfee (2003) thoughts on genetic code patents

Answer 32

• GM and biological patents
• monsanto and DUPoint companies exist to create new crops and sell seeds
• corn bred native americans thousands yrs ago - now attempts patent it
• pushing global standardisation - once patent, patent globally
  McAfee
• double reductionism
• Molecular-genetic reductionism - genetic code not function way patent does - simplifying complex process - can’t give genes private property claims
• econ reductionism - value nature equated to price

Question 33

Types of Nature (NL) - Carbon CS

Castree (2010) thoughts

Answer 33

• 1997 kyoto - carbon trading - cap and trade and offset
• offset eg. REDD+ - developing countries reduce GHGs protecting forests
• market to govern CC
• commodification of the atmosphere
  Castree
• EU-ETS is neoliberal as pollution market favours carbon-intensive industries that have sustained the European economy

Question 34

Types of Nature (NL) - Water CS

Answer 34

• Water human right (UN) or econ good - commodity
• South Africa - National Constitution 1996 and Water Services Act 1997 say water right but privatisation (water delivered by quasi-private companies) - disconnections if can not pay
• water privatisation vs state supply - env challenges, econ competition
• 1989 GB privatised water eng and wales - water distribution systems into companies, hold natural monopolies on areas - 1 company certain area (scotland covered council tax)
• constructed industry bottled water - selling an image - Nestle

Question 35

water-energy-food nexus connections

Answer 35

• 70% global water withdrawals used agriculture
• 30% energy used in agriculture
• 2012, 14, 15 UN world water days about nexus

Question 36

Swyngedouw (2009)

Hydro-social cycle

Answer 36

• political-ecological view - link hydrological cycle and social, pol, econ, cultural power - transcend nature/society binary - water circulation physical and social process and need to approach policies this way
• global / local hydro-social cycle
• hydraulic environments = socio-physical constructions - eg. damn produced physical and social (labour and nature’s transformation) - dams show distribution social power (struggles)
• env social struggle - access, control, distribution hydro-social cycle - social inequalities
• who decides cycle organisation, who controls, who manages - who is entitled what qual, kind, volume water
• universal right water vs power and property rights - transformation - tension urban rural eg. Las Vegas water organised market mechanisms - fail meet Millennium dev goal halving no w/o adequate water/sanitation - neo-liberal model
• Lot big management water linked government and power eg. Three Gorges eg. Israel cut Gaza’s water
• need more equitable hydro-social mechanisms

Question 37

Linton and Budds (2014)

Hydrosocial cycle

Answer 37

• hydrosocial cycle attends to the social nature of water flows - interrelation society and water
• water capacity to change social relations / human capacity to modify water cycle (1930s US make water and how humans modify legible to state)
• water flows connected to capital flows (Columbia River water flow to money dispossesses first nations water)
• Relational - things come into being in relation other things - water role social formations - water/social
• water takes on meanings depending on social circumstance (Hindus perform ablutions polluted river Ganges as believe healing power)
• water as a resource = hydrosocial cycle
• alteration hydrosocial cycle preceded or presupposes social structure and application social power eg. tech dam or policy privatisation - water product product power
• water unruly, attempt to fit into rigid social structures
• water embodies socio-natural processes, does not have a natural state eg. desalinsed water = produced relations seawater, tech infrastructure, energy flows etc. - different waters eg. Peru mining companies propose water swaps draw water Andes for mines and replace it downstream with desalinated water for towns - lot opposition
• virtual water flows

Question 38

Harvey (1973)

Answer 38

City is an environment which is a social product

Question 39

Castells

Answer 39

City is a site of collective consumption

Question 40

Gregory (2000)

Neo-Liberalism

Answer 40

• New Right rise 80s - Thatcher, Reagan - market centre, laissez-faire, limited state role, private property
• Adam Smith
• globalisation, IMF, WB

Question 41

Swyngedouw and Heynen (2003)

Urban Political Ecology

Answer 41

• Marxian urban pol ecology = integrated / relational approach econ, pol, socio, ecological processes which together form uneven, unjust landscapes - power relations - social production urban envs
• metabolisms support / maintain urban life eg. food combine social and physical processes - global creates the local - interconnectivity physical/human, local/global
• unsustainable modern cities - Engels ecological condition English cities related class character industrial urbanisation
• Raymond Williams transformation nature and social relations within urbanisation - socio-env change = production new natures
• capitalism commodity relation hides socioecological processes exploitation - commodification nature obscures social relations power and disconnects flows transformation nature - city = result urbanisation nature
• Marxist urban pol ecology = material conditions make up urban env, controlled and manipulated to serve the elite at expense marginalised
• Actor Network Theory
• across scales eg. recycling e waste seattle = exploitive spaces e-waste dumping china
  ESSENTIALLY MARX METABOLISM, NATURE! - loss binary, wilderness, neil smith
• pol ecology explains how econ/pol processes determine exploitation natural resources
• Cities not unnatural - built out of natural resources socially mediated
• town and urban as second nature (Lefebvre 1976)
• marginalised brunt neg env change

Question 42

McCarthy and Prudham (2004)

Neoliberal Nature

Answer 42

• NL = self-regulated market, commodification of everything, little state interference (state rollback), private property rights defended by state
• re-scale govs to local level
• entrepreneurial individuals as citizens
• US/UK 80s Thatcher / Reagan
• env project - enclosing commons, property rights - restructured social relation nature - nature into market - accumulation by dispossession (locke - enclose land and access natural resources for individual) - giving nature value only through application human labour, unimproved nature as value-less
• env risk thorn side capitalist accumulation - env + social counter NL
• globalisation

Question 43

Harvey (2005)

NL history

Answer 43

• turning point 70s/80s - 78 china steps liberalisation and capital, Thatcher and Reagan
• creation markets where did not exist eg. health care, education, water
• NL becoming hegemonic discourse - WTO, IMF, global
• time-space compression
• US war Iraq - NL on Iraq = privatisation, foreign owned business, banks open foreign control, no trade barriers
• NL state reflects interests private property owners, TNCs - NL theory claim measures necessary for wealth and wellbeing
• individual freedoms through market and trade freedom
• Chile NL state formation experiment - US economists into gov = acceptance IMF loans thus NL
• NL states and US imperial power (cold war, SAPs)
• post WW2 liberalism - welfare state, market has pol/ social constraints - NL removes capital from such constraints - embedded liberalism broke down 60s eg. GB bailed out IMF, gold backing not working - movement left, crisis 70s - US top 1% income 16% pre war to 8% post to NL 15%
• neoliberalisation was from start project to achieve restoration class power - greater social inequality and restoration econ power upper class

Question 44

Williams et al (2018)

Urban resource nexus

Answer 44

• resource nexus = paradigm env governance, focused interconnections sectors typically managed separately
• links material flows in crisis and anthropocene
• water-energy-food nexus - challenges 3 systems interrelated - promoted UN World water day 2014 + 15 - sustainability and resilience
• water-energy - energy in water systems and water in energy ones - US energy sector = fastest growing water user nationwide - demand increased 50% 2005-30 - biofuels water intense, as is HEP
• need consider scale in nexus thinking eg. studying cities or global water ecosystems etc
• programmes integrate water, energy + other resources management in cities may catalyst broader change
• interactions = tensions (stress one = stress another), trade-offs (change one sector, neg other), maladaptations (adaption to problem increases vulnerability to the problem) and synergies (adaptations benefit multiple sectors)
• inefficiency root challenge integrated resource management - in LA same agency manages water and energy and can take advantage of nexus but not more sustainable - formed to promote expansionist consumption
• nexus and integration as call more efficiency through tech = neoliberal policy, market fixes - deeming complex challenges technical, tool depoliticisation nature, env externalities in env governance
• 800mn malnutrition, 2.5bn no adequate sanitation, 1.3bn live homes no electricity

Question 45

Bulkeley (2005)

Reconfiguring env governance

Answer 45

• governance env issues transboundary international institutions - social institutions global scale agree norms, principles, authority - regimes to plug gaps between state space and atmosphere / oceans beyond state territory - strengthen territoriality nation-states reinforcing inter-state system but also weakens in allowing state regulation governed by global community
• global arena often mean lack bottom-up consideration
• many actors influence env governance diff scales - nation-state, horizontal networks and networks outside state-space (non-state actors)
• globalisation = overlapping and competing authorities diff scales - hollowing out of the state as functions state redistributed upwards to international organisations and down to non-state actors - scale no longer neatly packaged, links
• CCP China rescaling CC as a local issue as emissions reductions need done on this level - eg. traffic congestion - global dimensions, part network - new geog env governance
• env governance need move beyond hierarchies, separation of decision-making levels and divisions state and non-state - need hybrid governance things like climate