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Biology B2 > B2 > Flashcards

B2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the similarities and differences of animal and plant cells?

A

Similarities:
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane

Differences:
Only plant cells have:
Cell wall
Vacuole
Chloroplasts
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2
Q

What are the different parts of an animal cell?

What are their functions?

A

Nucleus
Holds DNA for cell division and protein synthesis (mitosis)

Cytoplasm:
Where all the chemical reactions take place (e.g anaerobic respiration)

Mitochondria
(Within cytoplasm) Site of aerobic respiration

Cell membrane:
Controls what goes in and out of the cell
(Is selectively permeable- has gates that allow large molecules such as glucose to enter and leave but not smaller ones)

Ribosomes
Macromolecule structural clamping units that froms bonds between amino acids to create poly-peptide chains (proteins)

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3
Q

What are the different parts of a plant cell?

What are their functions?

A

Cell wall
Gives the cell a rigid shape and strengthens
(made of cellulose- complex sugar)

Vacuole
Keeps the pressure within the cell right
- Filled with cell sap

Chloroplasts
The site of photosynthesis (production of glucose)

Nucleus
Holds DNA for cell division and protein synthesis (mitosis)

Cytoplasm:
Where all the chemical reactions take place (e.g anaerobic respiration)

Mitochondria
(Within cytoplasm) Site of aerobic respiration

Cell membrane:
Controls what goes in and out of the cell
(Is selectively permeable- has gates that allow large molecules such as glucose to enter and leave but not smaller ones)

Ribosomes
Macromolecule structural clamping units that froms bonds between amino acids to create poly-peptide chains (proteins)

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4
Q

How do you calculate magnification?

A

Eye piece X Objective lens
OR
Size of image/ Actual size

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5
Q

What are the parts of a bacteria cell?

A

No defined nucleus

Cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Slime capsule
(keeps cell hydrated)

Cell wall
(made of murein not cellulose)

Loop of DNA

Ribosomes
Macromolecule structural clamping units that froms bonds between amino acids to create poly-peptide chains (proteins)

No mitochondria

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6
Q

Are bacteria unicellular or multicellular organisms?

A

Unicellular

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7
Q

Are fungi unicellular or multicellular organisms?

A

Unicellular

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8
Q

Are animals unicellular or multicellular organisms?

A

Multicellular

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9
Q

Are plants unicellular or multicellular organisms?

A

Multicellular

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10
Q

What are the parts of a fungus cell?

A

Cell wall

Cell membrane

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Vacuole

Cytoplasm

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11
Q

Name some differentiated cells

-How are they adapted for their use?

A 
Guard cells (PLANT)
-Change cells to open and close the stomata

Sperm cell

  • Flagella for movement
  • Haploid nucleus
  • Acrosome at head to release enzymes to get through outer layer of egg (hydrolytic)
  • Mitochondria- extra energy for movement
Red blood cell
-bioconcaved disc 
-High SA
-no nucleus 
= can fit optimum amounts of oxyhaemoglobin

Egg cell

  • Haploid nucleus
  • Large amount of cytoplasm- extra food stores
  • Large amounts of mitochondria

Root hair cell
-High SA (due to hair-like appendages)
=can absorb optimum amounts of minerals/ions/nutrients

White blood cell- phagocyte

  • Lobed nucleus
  • -> can change shape to engulf pathogens
Neurone
-Myelin sheath 
(insulates)
-Dendrites 
(lots of connections possible)

Muscle cell
-Has striations that can contract and relax

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12
Q

What is the process of diffusion?

A

Particles using their kinetic energy to move down the concentration gradient until they eventually reach a dynamic equilibrium

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13
Q

What is the concentration gradient?

A

Movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

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14
Q

Why is diffusion important to organisms?

A

Because it allows the organism to access oxygen, glucose, water and carbon dioxide without using any energy

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15
Q

What happens when a cell needs to pump against the concentration gradient?

A

Active transport- The cell uses its membrane to push against using ATP

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16
Q

Why are cells small?

A

Its beneficial to them to have:
A large surface area to volume ratio
Short diffusion pathways to keep the cell alive

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17
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of specialised cells

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18
Q

What is an organ?

A

A group of tissues working with a common thing

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19
Q

Where does diffusion occur in the human body?

A

Digestion (w/ sugars)
Lungs (w/ gases)
Nerves (w/ electrical signals)

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20
Q

How does the stomach have different tissues working together?

A

Glandular tissue
secretes enzymes (protease) and acid- break down protein and sterilise the food from any bacteria
also secretes mucus- lines and protects the stomach from digesting itself

Muscular tissue
contracts- churns stomach and food within it

Outer epithelial tissue
covers outside of stomach- structural

Inner epithelial tissue
covers inside of stomach- structural and protects organ from digesting itself

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21
Q

What is digestion?

A

Macromolecules of food being physically and chemically broken down into more useful products (for growth, repair and energy)

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22
Q

What are the steps of digestion?

A

Mouth
food broken down physically w/ teeth
carbohydrase break up carbohydrates

Oesophagus
tube connecting mouth and stomach- food squeezed down

Stomach
acid and enzymes breaks food down chemically and physically
protease breaks up protein

Liver
stores sugar
produces bile

Pancreas
produces bile salts
produces enzymes for digestion
produces insulin

Small intestine
lipase breaks down fats
soluble food absorbed into the bloodstream

Large intestine
water absorbed into the bloodstream

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23
Q

What are the different layers of a leaf?

A

(bottom to top)

Guard cells
open and close to allow stomata gas exchange

Spongy mesophyll
provides short diffusion pathways

Palisade layer
main site of photosynthesis (lots of chloroplasts)

Waxy layer
waterproof
prevents evaporation and water loss
open and closes

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24
Q

What is a vascular bundle?

A

Xylem and phloem

what the plant uses to provide water ad sugars (circulatory system)

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25
Q

What is the function of xylem tissue?

A

Transporation

transports water

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26
Q

What is the function of phloem tissue?

A

Translocation

transports sugar

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27
Q

What are the features of xylem and phloem?

A

Xylem
transporation (water and minerals)
one-directional
dead, hollow cells

Phloem 
translocation (sugars/food)
two-directional
living cells
contains sieve plates
Active transport (use energy to transport sugar)
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28
Q

Where are xylem and phloem tissue found?

A

Roots and stems

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29
Q

What is the function of a root?

A

Absorbing water for the plant

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30
Q

What is the function of the stem?

A

Holds the plant together

Is a pathway for sugars and water to move around the plant

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31
Q

What is the function of the upper epidemis in a plant?

A

Prevents evapotransporation

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32
Q

What’s the equation for photosynthesis?

A

Carbon dioxide + water (+light +chlorophyll) –> Glucose + oxygen

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33
Q

What are the sugars made in photosynthesis used to make?

A

Proteins

Starch

Lipids

Cellulose

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34
Q

What are proteins in a plant made from?

A

Proteins= polypeptide chain of amino acids (made by ribosomes)
-Nitrogen (from soil) + glucose (from photosynthesis) = Amino acids

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35
Q

What is the starch in a plant made from?

A

Polysaccharide chain of aplha glucose molecules

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36
Q

What are lipids in a plant made from?

A

Gylcerol + 3 fatty acid chains

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37
Q

What is the cellulose in a plant made from?

A

Polysaccharide chain of beat glucose molecules

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38
Q

What are the features of a leaf?

A

Large SA
-traps as much light as possible

Side veins
-transporation & translocation

Thin and flat
-short diffusion pathways allow gas exchange

Chloroplasts (containing chlorophyll A & B, xanthia)
-photosynthesis (range of pigments absorb range of wave lengths)

Midrib
-keeps the structure of the leaf

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39
Q

What are the limiting factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis?

A

Concentration of carbon dioxide

Light intensity

Warmth/Temperature

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40
Q

What’s a ribosome?

A

A macromolecule that joins amino acids together to form a proteins

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41
Q

What is a protein?

A

Polypeptide chains of amino acids clamped together by ribosomes in cells. They are three dimensional globular shapes

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42
Q

What is an enzyme?

A

A three dimensional biological catalyst that speed up chemical reactions (anabolic or catabolic) in a cell

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43
Q

What is an anabolic reaction?

A

A reaction that builds something up

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44
Q

What is a catabolic reaction?

A

A reaction that breaks something down

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45
Q

What’s a substrate?

A

What a specific enzyme works on

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46
Q

How do enzymes work on their substrates?

A

Enzymes have specific active sites that fit in with their specific substrate. When they lock together to form an enzyme-substrate complex, they speed up the anabolic or catabloic reaction that’s already taking place. (lock&key theory)

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47
Q

What are some uses of enzymes?

A

Soft centre chocolate
-enzymes keep it soft

Biological washing powder
-enzymes included break down food stains

Baby food
-enzymes to break down food (already partially broken down) to assist undeveloped digestive system

Alcohol, bread and cheese production
-enzymes used for fermentation

Slimming bars
-include enzymes

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48
Q

What enzyme breaks down starch?

What is it broken down into?

A

Amylase

Glucose

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49
Q

What enzyme breaks down protein?

What is it broken down into?

A

Protease

Amino acids

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50
Q

What enzyme breaks down lipids?

What is it broken down into?

A

Lipase

Fatty acids and gylcerol

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51
Q

What is the role of bile salts in digestion?

A

Produced by the liver and released by the gall bladder into the small intestine, bile salts cause the emulsification of fats. This increases their surface area, which makes it quicker for enzymes (lipase) to break down the droplets of fat into soluble molecules.

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52
Q

What are fermentation tanks used for?

A

To grow a bacterial population in it’s specific optimum conditions

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53
Q

What the optimum conditions for bacterial growth?

A

~38 degrees
Controlled light levels (dependent on species)
Controlled oxygen levels (dependent on species)
Moisture
A growth medium

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54
Q

How is protease used in baby food?

A

The food is partially digested
-their digestive system isn’t developed enough to break down some macromolecules
BUT
-amino acids are crucial to their development

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55
Q

How is amylase used in food production?

A

Using cane sugar is expensive
-instead cheaper sources of carbohydrates are used
+ amylase= breaks down into glucose (sugar)

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56
Q

How is isomerase used in slimming bars?

A

Isomerase catalyses the changing of glucose to fructose

-fructose tastes sweeter for less calories & is cheaper

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57
Q

What qualities must industrial enzymes have?

A

Long shelf life

Thermally stable

Wider than usual PH tolerance

Work in the presence of chemicals that usually stop enzymes working
- Not easily denatured, Robust

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58
Q

What are the word and symbol equations for aerobic respiration?

A

Glucose + Oxygen –> Carbon dioxide + Water

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> CO2 +H2O

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59
Q

What is the mitochondria in a cell?

A

Organelle- site of aerobic respiration

has a high surface area

60
Q

What is glycogen?

A

Stores of sugar in muscles & granules in the liver

61
Q

What happens if glycogen stores are full?

A

Glycogenasis turns into the production of fats

62
Q

How does the body meet the increased energy demand brought on by exercise?

A

Increase of heart rate
Increase in breathing rate
–> to feed body w/ elevated levels of glucose and oxygen

63
Q

What is the word equation for anaerobic respiration?

A

Glucose –> Lactic acid

64
Q

Is anaerobic respiration reversible?

A

Yes

65
Q

How do you reverse anaerobic respiration and convert lactic acid back to glucose

A

+ Oxygen

66
Q

What is oxygen debt?

A

When a person is using more energy than they can sustain aerobically
–> body goes into anaerobic resp. to pay for it (- build up lactic acid–> needs to be paid back w/ oxygen at some point)

67
Q

What are the two types of cell division?

A

Mitosis

Meiosis

68
Q

Where does mitosis occur?

A

Normal somatic cells

69
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells that aren’t gametes

70
Q

Is mitosis a haploid or diploid process?

A

Diploid

Exact copies made

71
Q

What is mitosis?

A

The cell division of somatic cells to produce diploid exact copies

72
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Gametes

73
Q

What are gametes?

A

Sex cells

-Sperm & Eggs

74
Q

Is meiosis a haploid or diploid process?

A

Haploid

75
Q

What is meiosis?

A

The cell division of gametes to produce haploid cells

- The production of sex cells

76
Q

Do organisms who reproduce asexually use mitosis or meiosis for cell division?

A

Mitosis

77
Q

Define haploid

A

When one set of the chromosomes of the cell are conserved in cell division
(n)

78
Q

Define diploid

A

When both sets of the chromosomes of the cell are conserved in cell division
(2n)

79
Q

Give 4 examples of cells that go through mitosis

A

Red blood cells
Skin cells
Neurones
White blood cells

80
Q

What is the process of mitotic cell division?

A

The DNA within the nucleus of a somatic cell replicates itself exactly
-The cell splits into 2 identical copies with the same genetic info.

81
Q

What is the process of meiosis cell division?

A

The DNA within the nucleus of a gemete replicates itself
Swapping over- chromosomes will swap part of their DNA to ensure genetic variation
First division- cell divides into 2
Second division- those cells divide in 4 in total (2 each again)
= 4 X hapoloid gametes

82
Q

Who was Mendel?

A

A Czechoslovakian monk who first presented gene theory after carrying out experiments on pea plants

83
Q

What were Mendel’s experiments with pea plants?

A

Grew and tracked reproductive of 1000s of pea plants
Controlled the pollination
- Then tracked characteristics that were produced
–> Used mathematics to find the ratios of dominant and recessive genes

84
Q

How did scientists rediscover Mendel’s work?

A

He published papers he had written of his findings for peer review

85
Q

Define genes

A

Small units that code for a specific characteristics

86
Q

Define alleles

A

Alternative characteristics in a gene that could be present

87
Q

Define monohybrid inheritance

A

The tracking of one type of characteristic

88
Q

When drawing Punnet squares, what do you always assume about the parents?

A

They are pure bred

89
Q

What is the first generation of a Punnet square called?

A

First fillial generation

90
Q

What is the second generation of a Punnet square called?

A

Second fillial generation

91
Q

What are the forms that you can present the probability of a characteristic from a Punnet square?

A

Ratio

Percentage

92
Q

How do you represent a dominant gene on a Punnet square?

A

With a capital letter

93
Q

How do you represent a recessive gene on a Punnet square?

A

With a lower case letter

94
Q

What does the word phenotype describe?

A

The observable physical characteristics of an organism

95
Q

What does the word genotype describe?

A

The combination of alleles of an organism

the genetic make-up

96
Q

Define homozygous

A

A pair of matching alleles

97
Q

Define heterozygous

A

A non matching pair of alleles

-one dominant, one recessive

98
Q

What is a dominant allele?

A

An allele that always shows, even if the individual only has 1 copy of it
(From one parent)

99
Q

What is a recessive allele?

A

An allele that only shows if the individual has 2 copies of it
(From both parents)

100
Q

Give 2 examples of recessive alleles

A

Allele for blue eyes

Faulty allele for cystic fibrosis

101
Q

Give 2 examples of dominant alleles

A

Allele for brown eyes

Faulty allele for polydactyly

102
Q

What is the chromosome pair that codes for a male offspring?

A

X + Y

103
Q

What is the chromosome pair that codes for a female offspring

A

X + X

104
Q

What are the chances of having a male offspring?

A

50%

105
Q

What are the chances of having a female offspring?

A

50%

106
Q

What do genes code for?

A

A particular protein

107
Q

What is a gene?

A

A small section of DNA

108
Q

What shape does DNA take?

A

A double helix

109
Q

Describe DNA

A

A double helix with a sugar phosphate backbone that contains organic base pairs

110
Q

What are chromosomes made up of?

A

DNA

111
Q

What are the organic base pairs that make up DNA?

A

Adenine and Thymine
(A & T)

Guanine and Cytosine
(G & C)

112
Q

What is the human genome made up of?

A

23 pairs of chromosomes

113
Q

What is the central dogma of genetics?

A

DNA –> RNA –> Protein

114
Q

Describe the process of protein synthesis

A

DNA unzips itself to make mRNA (u replaces t)
Codons fit w/ anti-codons to form amino acids
Ribosomes clamp AA together to form polypeptide chain of protein

115
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

A relatively common genetic disorder

  • affects cell membrane in the lungs & digestive system
  • -> Produces too much thick mucus
116
Q

What is cystic fibrosis caused by?

A

A faulty recessive gene

noth parents need to be carriers or sufferers

117
Q

What are the odds of someone being a carrier of cystic fibrosis if both their parents carry the gene?

A

50%

118
Q

What are the odds of someone being a carrier of cystic fibrosis is both their parents carry the gene?

A

25%

119
Q

What are the odds of someone being a carrier or a sufferer of cystic fibrosis if only one of their parents carries the gene?

A

0%

120
Q

What are some of the symptoms of cystic fibrosis?

A

Lung problems:
chest infections, inflammation of airways, shortness of breath

Digestive system problems:
severe bowel obstruction, jaundice, malnutrition, diabetes

weakened bones, difficulty with fertility,liver problems

121
Q

Is there currently treatment for cystic fibrosis?

A

No

-possible to control symptoms

122
Q

How does cystic fibrosis affect people’s daily lives?

A

Daily care
-some can’t attend school/work
Most men are infertile
Most women find it hard to have kids

123
Q

What is the test for cystic fibrosis?

A

Blood sample from mother’s womb during pregnancy

124
Q

What is polydactyly?

A

Genetic disorder resulting in extra digits being present on the hands or the feet

125
Q

What causes polydactyly?

A

A faulty dominant allele

126
Q

What is the chance of someone having polydactyly if one of the parents has it?

A

50%

127
Q

What is the chance of someone having polydactyly if both of the parents have it?

A

75%

128
Q

What is the treatment for polydactyly?

A

If not fully formed- no bone:
Vascular clip attached to base- stops blood flow- digit falls off

If more formed- w/ bone:
Surgery- amputation and reconnecting systems so that the hand/foot is fully functioning

129
Q

What is the test for polydactyly?

A

Sometimes seen on prenatal ultrasounds
-evident at birth
X-rays taken after birth to see how formed the digit is- (bone or not)

130
Q

How does polydactyly affect people’s every life?

A

Not much- most have extra digit removed early on

131
Q

What is embryo screening?

A

Taking blood from an embryo and screening it to see if it has any faulty alleles for genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis

132
Q

What are the ethical arguments for and against embryo screening?

A

For
Gives parents an element of choice for how they want to proceed, knowing the embryo carries the faulty allele

Against
Expensive
If doctors mess it up- parents may not realise
Can only provide single screening
Messing with embryos- against God's will
133
Q

What are the ethical arguments for and against DNA screening?

A

For
Less invasive than a blood sample
Can lead to reliable convictions
Can be pivotal in the reversal of wrong convictions
Can be used to protect those wrongly accused of crimes

Against
Lack of privacy- trust in government
Data could be hacked (identity thieves)
Could easily be manipulated 
-(corrupt states)
134
Q

What are the ethical arguments for and against stem cell research?

A

For
Could be used to further scientific knowledge
Can lead to better understanding and treatment of diseases (such as Parkinson’s)
Could eventually replace transplants
-(much lower risk of rejection)

Against
Ends potential lives
Goes against God’s will- MURDER
Funding is limited

135
Q

What are the stages of evolution?

A 
Every population has genetic variation
-variation of characteristics
Habitats provide selection pressure
Survival advantage
-SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
Genes passed on through reproduction
136
Q

Define a selection pressure

A

Things that result in a change of something

137
Q

What causes new species to form?

A

Selection pressures

138
Q

What are some examples of selection pressures?

A

Change in food
Change in temperature
New predators

139
Q

What will geographical isolation result in?

A

New selection pressures

–> Formation of new species

140
Q

What is the best source of evidence we have for evolution?

A

Fossils

141
Q

Define a fossil

A

Imprints or impressions of a once living organism that has formed over millions of years
-The organic part has been replaced by rock minerals

142
Q

What will happen to a fossilised organism if one or more of the conditions for decay are missing?

What is an example of this?

A

Part of the organism might not have decayed

Fossilised amber
-(not true fossil- not replaced by rock minerals)

143
Q

What are some examples of preservation?

A

Drying
Freeze-drying
Oxygen removal

144
Q

Why can anything be preserved if oxygen is removed?

A

The growth of bacteria relies on the presence of oxygen

-no oxygen=no bacteria=no decay

145
Q

How do fossils form?

A

An organism dies- falls to the bottom of the sea
Layers of sediment trap it on seabed over time
Layers are compact –> low levels of oxygen- decomposition is slow
Microbes slowly decompose organic material
Organic material is replaced w/ rock minerals
–> causing impression in the rock over millions of years

Biology B2 (1 decks)

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