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IB Biology - Theme B : Form and Function > B1.1 carbohydrates and lipids > Flashcards

B1.1 carbohydrates and lipids Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the smallest forms of carbohydrates called?

A

Monosaccharides are the smallest forms of carbohydrates.

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2
Q

What is the formula for monosaccharides?

A

Monosaccharides follow the formula CH2On, where n represents the number of carbon atoms.

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3
Q

What are the monomers of larger carbohydrates like disaccharides and polysaccharides?

A

Monosaccharides serve as the monomers for larger carbohydrates such as disaccharides and polysaccharides.

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4
Q

What are lipids at warmer temperatures and cooler temperatures?

A

Lipids are oils at warmer temperatures and fats at cooler temperatures.

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5
Q

What are the monomers of triglyceride lipids?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids serve as the monomers of triglyceride lipids.

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6
Q

What determines the identity of specific lipids?

A

The fatty acids, which are highly variable, determine the identity of specific lipids.

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7
Q

What shared function do carbohydrates and lipids serve?

A

Both carbohydrates and lipids act as energy storage molecules.

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8
Q

How does the energy storage capacity of lipids compare to carbohydrates?

A

Per gram of substance, lipids store approximately twice the chemical energy compared to carbohydrates.

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9
Q

What are the four primary biochemical groups within living organisms?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four primary biochemical groups within living organisms.

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10
Q

Why is life on Earth often described as “carbon-based”?

A

All molecules in living organisms contain carbon, and its ability to form diverse patterns with its four outer shell electrons contributes to the “carbon-based” description of life on Earth.

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11
Q

How can carbon atoms form covalent bonds with each other?

A

Carbon atoms can form carbon-carbon covalent bonds by sharing electrons with each other.

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12
Q

What is the significance of oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus in living organisms’ molecules?

A

These elements form covalent bonds with carbon and with each other, being common components in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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13
Q

How many covalent bonds does each of these elements form in biochemistry: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus?

A

Hydrogen forms 1, oxygen forms 2, nitrogen forms 3, carbon forms 4, and phosphorus forms 5 covalent bonds

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14
Q

Why is it beneficial to recognize common functional groups in biochemistry?

A

Recognizing common functional groups helps understand and identify molecules crucial to living organisms, aiding in the comprehension of biochemical processes.

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15
Q

Name some examples of monosaccharides.

A

Glucose, galactose, fructose, ribose

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16
Q

Name some examples ofdisaccharides.

A

Maltose, lactose, and sucrose

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17
Q

List examples of polysaccharides.

A

Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin

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18
Q

What are triglycerides?

A

Triglycerides are a category of lipids primarily associated with fat stored in adipose cells.

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19
Q

Name some examples of phospholipids and steroids.

A

Phospholipids and steroids are examples of lipids forming a bilayer in cell membranes. Steroids are also associated with some hormones.

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20
Q

What are examples of nucleotides?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are examples of nucleotides.

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21
Q

What type of molecules are enzymes, antibodies, and peptide hormones?

A

types of proteins.

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22
Q

What are macromolecules made of?

A

Macromolecules are made up of smaller molecules called monomers.

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23
Q

How do hydrolysis reactions affect macromolecules?

A

Hydrolysis reactions break covalent bonds between monomers in macromolecules using water.

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24
Q

What are the monomers of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids?

A

Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates, while glycerol, fatty acids, and phosphate groups constitute the monomers of lipids. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins, and nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids.

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25
Q

What happens to the resulting monomers after digestion?

A

The resulting monomers are absorbed into the bloodstream and circulated to body cells.

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26
Q

How are macromolecules rebuilt within cells?

A

Monomers are built up into macromolecules within cells through condensation reactions, which involve forming covalent bonds.

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27
Q

Provide an example of hydrolysis and condensation reactions in the body.

A

Hydrolysis occurs during digestion of protein-containing food like a taco, breaking down the protein into amino acids. These amino acids are then used in condensation reactions directed by DNA within body cells to create specific proteins.

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28
Q

What occurs in a condensation reaction?

A

A condensation reaction results in the formation of a water molecule as part of the reaction.

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29
Q

Explain the role of water in condensation and hydrolysis reactions.

A

In a condensation reaction, a water molecule is formed as a product. In hydrolysis, a water molecule splits into two components, integrating into the resulting smaller molecules.

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30
Q

What is necessary for both condensation and hydrolysis reactions to occur?

A

Both types of reactions require specific enzymes to catalyze the chemical transformations.

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31
Q

What occurs during a condensation reaction involving two monosaccharides?

A

Two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction to form a disaccharide, producing one water molecule as a byproduct.

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32
Q

How is starch (a polysaccharide) formed through a condensation reaction?

A

Many glucose molecules undergo condensation to form starch, generating multiple water molecules as a byproduct.

33
Q

What process forms a polypeptide from amino acids?

A

A condensation reaction links many amino acids to form a polypeptide chain, accompanied by the release of multiple water molecules.

34
Q

Describe the process of nucleotide formation in a condensation reaction.

A

The components of nucleotides (phosphate group, pentose sugar, nitrogenous base) undergo condensation to create a nucleotide, releasing two water molecules.

35
Q

Explain the mechanism behind the formation of a peptide bond.

A

During a condensation reaction between amino acids, the -OH from one amino acid and the H+ from another come together, forming a water molecule. The released electrons form a new covalent bond known as a peptide bond, catalyzed by an enzyme.

36
Q

What is the general formula for the condensation reaction between two amino acids, considering the variable “R” notation allowing for any of the 20 amino acids?

A

. H R O
I I II
H - N - C - C - OH +
I
H

 H       R      O
   I        I       II H - N  -   C  -   C  - OH       = 
            I
           H

 H       R      O           R     O
   I        I       II             I      II
  N  -   C  -   C  - N  -  C  -  C
   I        I              I       I       I
  H       H            H     H     OH
37
Q

What process breaks down polymers into monomers in organisms?

A

Digestion occurs in the alimentary canal, where hydrolytic enzymes catalyze hydrolysis reactions to break polymers into monomers.

38
Q

What type of enzymes are involved in breaking down food molecules into monomers?

A

Hydrolysing enzymes are responsible for breaking down food molecules into their constituent monomers through hydrolysis reactions.

39
Q

Describe a hydrolysis reaction involving a disaccharide.

A

The hydrolysis of lactose yields glucose and galactose through the addition of water, breaking the disaccharide into its monosaccharide components.

40
Q

chemical formula of pentose monocacheride

A

C5H10O5

41
Q

an example of a pentose monocacheride

A

ribose

42
Q

chemical formula of hexose monocacheride

A

C6H12O6

43
Q

example of hexose monocacheride

A

glucose

44
Q

general formula for a monosacheride

A

CnH2nOn
where n is the amount of carbon atoms

45
Q

What structural feature makes glucose a polar molecule?

A

Glucose contains multiple alcohol (hydroxyl) functional groups, resulting in its polar nature due to the presence of polar covalent bonds.

46
Q

List the properties of glucose molecules.

A

Glucose exhibits
1- molecular stability due to its stable covalent bonds,
2- high solubility in water,
3- ease of transportability in fluids, and
4- yields a significant amount of chemical energy when its covalent bonds are broken in oxidation reactions.

47
Q

What advantage does the high energy yield from breaking glucose’s covalent bonds offer?

A

Glucose’s high energy yield in oxidation reactions makes it an excellent energy store, providing substantial chemical energy when needed.

48
Q

How is glucose, synthesized in photosynthesis, primarily stored in plants?

A

Glucose is often stored as starch molecules, a polysaccharide composed of numerous glucose monomers.

49
Q

types of polysaccherides

A

starch glycogen and cellulose

50
Q

How is starch categorized, and what are its two main polysaccharides?

A

Starch is a glucose polymer consisting of amylose and amylopectin as its two main polysaccharides.

51
Q

What distinguishes the structure of starch in terms of glucose bonding?

A

Starch in plants utilizes two types of bonds between glucose molecules: amylose :alpha 1-4 linkages and amylopectin : alpha 1-6 linkages, forming different structures.

52
Q

Explain the significance of the alpha 1-4 linkage in starch formation.

A

An alpha 1-4 linkage between glucose molecules results in a linear molecule, often forming a helix-shaped structure, as seen in amylose.

53
Q

What role do alpha 1-6 linkages play in starch composition?

A

Alpha 1-6 linkages, common in amylopectin, introduce branching in starch molecules composed of hundreds of glucose units.

54
Q

Why is the low solubility of starch in water important for plants?

A

the low solubility of starch facilitates its easy storage within plants due to its non-dissolving nature.

55
Q

How do plants manage glucose storage and retrieval?

A

During photosynthesis, plants add glucose molecules to amylose or amylopectin via condensation reactions. Conversely, hydrolysis reactions break glucose molecules away from starch when needed.

56
Q

What is glycogen, and how does it differ from amylopectin?

A

Glycogen, similar to amylopectin, is a glucose polysaccharide with 1-6 linkages, but it possesses more numerous branching than amylopectin. Humans and many animals store excess glucose as glycogen in liver and muscle tissue.

57
Q

How does cellulose differ in branching and structure compared to starch or glycogen?

A

Cellulose, unlike starch or glycogen, lacks branching and forms long, straight chains composed of glucose molecules joined by beta 1-4 linkages. and forms linear, fibrous structures. It serves as a structural component in plant cell walls, is insoluble in water, and permits the passage of substances into and out of cells due to its fibrous nature.

58
Q

What are conjugated molecules

A

Conjugated molecules are combinations of different categories of molecules like lipids, proteins, carbohydrates

59
Q

three examples of conjugated molecules

A
  • lipoproteins
    (lipid + protein),
  • glycolipids
    (carbohydrate + lipid)
  • glycoproteins
    (carbohydrate + protein).
60
Q

How do glycoproteins function in cell membranes?

A

Glycoproteins in cell membranes aid in cell signaling, molecule transport, cell adhesion, enzyme catalysis, and recognition of self and non-self cells for immune system functions.

61
Q

How do glycoproteins relate to ABO blood types?

A

Glycoproteins on red blood cells determine ABO blood types. Presence or absence of specific antigens (A and B) on these glycoproteins influences immune system response. Blood type O lacks both antigens, making it a universal donor, while blood type AB lacks immune responses to both antigens, making it a universal recipient.

62
Q

What are the four ABO blood types and their associated glycoproteins found on red blood cell plasma membranes?

A
  • Blood Type A: Glycoprotein A
  • Blood Type B: Glycoprotein B
  • Blood Type AB: Glycoproteins A and B
  • Blood Type O: Neither glycoprotein A nor B
63
Q

What transfusion possibilities exist among the ABO blood types?

A

-Blood Type A can receive from A and O, can give to A and AB.

  • Blood Type B can receive from B and O, can give to B and AB.
  • Blood Type AB can receive from AB, A, B, O, and can give to AB.
  • Blood Type O can receive from O only, can give to A, B, AB, and O.
64
Q

What are some categories of lipids, and what is a unique characteristic of lipid molecules concerning solubility?

A

Lipids are categorized as fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.

They possess areas of hydrocarbons, forming non-polar covalent bonds between carbon and hydrogen, resulting in poor solubility in water but good solubility in non-polar solvents.

65
Q

How do organisms address the limited solubility of lipids, and what are examples of such solutions?

A

Organisms overcome lipid insolubility by conjugating lipids with other molecules. Examples include the formation of glycolipids and lipoproteins to aid in the solubility and transport of lipids when needed.

66
Q

How are triglycerides and phospholipids formed from glycerol and fatty acids, and what distinguishes phospholipids from triglycerides?

A

Triglycerides are formed by the condensation reaction of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules, yielding a triglyceride and three water molecules. Phospholipids are produced when an inorganic phosphate replaces one of the three fatty acids in the reaction of glycerol with two fatty acids and an inorganic phosphate, forming a phospholipid along with three water molecules.

67
Q

Describe the structure of glycerol and the components of fatty acids involved in lipid formation.

A

Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule, initially bonding to one hydroxyl group on each carbon. Fatty acids vary in carbon count and may contain double bonds between carbons, always ending with a terminal carboxyl group, which participates in condensation reactions during lipid formation.

68
Q

What are the characteristics of saturated fatty acids, and how do they affect the properties of triglycerides?

A

saturated fatty acids contain only single bonds between carbons, are solid at room temperature, and found in “fats,” used for energy storage in animals.

69
Q

What are the characteristics of monounsaturated fatty acids, and how do they affect the properties of triglycerides?

A

Monounsaturated fatty acids have one double bond, lowering the melting point; triglycerides with these acids are liquid at room temperature, found in some animals and many plants.

70
Q

What are the characteristics of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and how do they affect the properties of triglycerides?

A

Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain multiple double bonds, resulting in lower melting points; triglycerides with these acids are liquid at room temperature, commonly stored as energy in plants.

71
Q

How does caloric intake affect triglyceride storage, and how are triglycerides utilized for energy?

A

Triglyceride storage in adipose tissue is influenced by caloric intake versus calories burned.
Excess calories lead to triglyceride formation via condensation reactions, while insufficient intake results in triglyceride hydrolysis for energy release in cell respiration.

72
Q

Why are triglycerides efficient for long-term energy storage, and how does their solubility affect their storage?

A

Triglycerides are insoluble in body fluids, remaining in adipose storage sites, ideal for long-term energy storage. They provide roughly twice the energy per gram compared to carbohydrates.

73
Q

How do animals in cold regions utilize adipose tissue, and what is its specialized form in these environments?

A

Endothermic animals in cold regions, like arctic birds and mammals, possess thick adipose tissue known as blubber. This layer helps retain heat generated by their metabolic activities, assisting in maintaining a steady internal temperature despite external cold conditions.

74
Q

Describe the formation of a phospholipid molecule and its structural characteristics.

A

A phospholipid is formed with a phosphate group that alters the molecule’s polarity
.
It consists of a polar end (phosphate group) and a longer non-polar end (hydrocarbon tails).

Known as amphipathic molecules, phospholipids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

75
Q

How do phospholipids address their hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads in an aqueous solution, and what structure does this form?

A

Phospholipids in aqueous solutions form a bilayer with hydrophobic tails orienting inwards and hydrophilic phosphate groups facing outward.
This bilayer formation resolves the conflict between hydrophobic tails and the surrounding aqueous environment, forming the foundation of cellular membranes.

76
Q

What are hormones, and how do steroids relate to their production?

A

Hormones are chemical messengers released into the bloodstream by various glands in the body.
Steroids, derived from cholesterol, constitute one group of hormones, retaining a hydrocarbon structure.

77
Q

Describe the production and action similarities between oestradiol and testosterone.

A

Both oestradiol and testosterone are produced by gonadal tissue and play roles in developing primary and secondary sex characteristics during puberty.
As hydrophobic hormones, they easily penetrate cell membranes, entering target cells through both plasma and nuclear membranes to regulate transcription within the nucleus.

78
Q
A
79
Q
A

IB Biology - Theme B : Form and Function (10 decks)

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