B1 Flashcards

Question

Striated muscle cells function and structure

Answer 1

Structure: – Long cells with multiple nuclei that make up skeletal muscles; often referred to as muscle fibres – striated relates to their striped appearance Function: Contractor cause movement of the body

Answer 2

– A light source – stage, with the specimen (usually on the glass microscope slide) is placed. – it objective lens, usually low –, medium or high-power – an eye piece lens – Samples must be very thin to allow light to pass through this usually means cutting sections with a sharp blade or a a microtome

Answer 3

magnification = size of image/size of object

Answer 4

The cell cycle consists of; -interphase (DNA replication) -Mitosis (nuclear division)

Answer 5

(PMAT) Prophase – chromosomes become visible as two chromatids. The nuclear envelope disappears. Metaphase – the chromosomes lineup on the equator at the centre of the cell. Anna phase – the chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite poles of the cell. At the end of anaphase we term chromosome rather than chromatid, Telephones – two sets of chromosomes collect opposite poles of the cell. The nuclear envelope performs around each. Two daughter nuclei are produced.

Answer 6

proteins are used within the body for growth and repair for example – proteins in muscles, ligaments and tendons. – enzymes that take part in cellular processes – proteins and skin, nails, hair, and bones

Answer 7

Surface area divided by volume

Answer 8

if the surface area is small compared to the volume, then additional exchange and transport mechanisms, such as lungs, will be needed to maximise the rate of exchange. The rate of exchange depends on: – diffusion distance, so exchange surfaces are usually thin: the alveoli in the lungs are only cell thick Temperature, as the rate of diffusion increases with temperature – metabolic rate; as this increases, the demand for glucose (absorbed in the gut) and oxygen (absorbed in the lungs) increase

Answer 9

The cell surface membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer that acts like a barrier to diffusion of polar substances(such as water, glucose and iron such as NA+^ and Cl-). These proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are found in the membrane very shape, size and location, creating a mosaic pattern, so the way we describe the structure of the cell surface membrane is known as the fluid mosaic model. The membrane is described as fluid as components can move through it.

Answer 10

– Passive transport means not using energy from ATP, so substances always diffuse from high to low concentration (down a concentration gradient) – cell surface membrane = partially permeable – small, nonpolar molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) can move through the phospholipid bilayer by simple diffusion. – polar substances (water, glucose, ions) cannot diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer and transported by facilitated diffusion. This involves proteins or carry proteins.(The picture has a little gate that opens showing that I cannot move through the cell surface membrane). Simple diffusion is a form of passive transport.

Answer 11

– Result diffusion, substances always move from high to glow concentration. – An active transport carrier proteins use energy from ATP to move substances from a low concentration to a high concentration. (Against the concentration gradient)

Answer 12

– Co-transport is a type of facilitated diffusion using Kyo proteins that will only transport one substance together with another substance. – Epithelial cells in the lining of a small intestine so carrier proteins only allow movement of the glucose when it’s together with sodium ions, Active transport of sodium ions out of the epithelial cells into the blood sets up a concentration gradient of sodium ions that drive the uptake of glucose from the intestine movement of glucose from aphelia cells into the blood requires facilitated diffusion. (So basically it has to be paired up to enter the epithelial cell it then splits off into the blood, the sodium ion has to enter with energy from ATP and glucose through facilitated diffusion/through the gate)

Answer 13

– Genes control production of proteins – RNA (Ribonucleic acid) transfer genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesised – the sequence of bases and DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein. – proteins determine the characteristics of an organism

Answer 14

example of condition: –chlamydia, gonorrhoea, tuberculosis But infections can be treated with antibiotics, but bacteria becoming more resistant to them

Answer 15

example of condition: Common cold, mumps, measles SARS – COV –2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19, has become the best known virus. The viruses must fight body cells in orders to replicate (reproduce).

Answer 16

Example of condition/disease: Yeast infection (thrush) Other examples of fungal skin infections include to nail fungus and athletes foot

Answer 17

example of condition: creutzfeldt-jakob disease (CJD) prions are nonliving, pathogenic proteins. If ingested, a mutant form of a pride prating can cause normal pride and proteins to change shape. This causes damage to the nervous system and may lead to death.

Answer 18

example of disease: Malaria. Do not confuse the pathogen (plasmodium, a protest) with the anopheles mosquito that carries the pathogen

Answer 19

example of conditions/disease: Toxoplasmosis This infection is caused by the parasitic protoctist toxoplasma gondii . Many multicellular parasites can also cause infections, particularly in developing countries.

Answer 20

– There may be physical contact with an infected person (shaking hands) or come contaminated surfaces – sharing of needles can allow transmission of blood-borne pathogens such as HIV. – unprotected sexual contact can lead to sexually transmitted infections (STI) such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea (can be caused by bacteria) or genital herpes (caused by virus) – airborne transmission is the pathogen is carried by dust or droplets (aerosols) in the air. Some can remain in the air for many hours. COVID-19 and tuberculosis of birth spread by inhaling infected droplets. Some pathogens can cause infection rapidly, while others require much longer exposure.

Answer 21

this may involve vehicle transmission, for example and digesting infected food or water. Vehicle oral transmission is a result of poor hand hygiene and is significant calls for food poisoning. Blood from inanimate objects (for example bedding) can also be a source of infection – can also involve being bitten or infected by vector. Malaria is transmitted when an infected mosquito(the vector) transfers the plasmodium protest in its bite

Answer 22

– And adequate sanitation, lack of access to clean water without water bond diseases. Inadequate sewage can increase the risk of faecal oral transmission. High population density, overcrowding in household, along with lack of social distancing outside of the home, can increase the risk of airborne transmission and transmission by physical contact. – lack of accessible health promotion information, without information people are less likely to take precautions to prevent the spread of infection. They may also be less likely to take vaccination or other health protection measures

Answer 23

antigens chemical markers (usually proteins or glycol proteins) found on the surface of cells. – The body can recognise self and non-self antigens

Answer 24

– Physical and chemical barriers help prevent pathogens from entering the body. The skin and weakness membranes (lung , gut and reproductive system). – Inflammation is a response injury and infection. Blood flow increases and helps to deliver lymphocytes and phagocytes to the side of the infection. Chemicals are also released that promote phagocytosis . Swelling can occur as a result of fluid leaking out of blood vessels into the tissues. – phagocytes involve pathogens being engulfed undigested by phagocytes

Answer 25

these are slower and are specific for a particular antigen or pathogen. One pathogens enter the body, T cells and bee cells are activated by foreign (non-self) antigens on pathogens or other foreign cells

Answer 26

activation of T cells leads to the cell mediated response: – activated T cells bind to non-antigens on the infected cells and destroy them. This removes (kills) bacteria and viruses that replicate inside cells – activated T cells form memory T cells Activation of bee cells leads to the antibody mediated response: – activated these cells produces antibodies. – these antibodies are specific to the antigens on the pathogen that leads to the activation of the B cells. – antibodies bind to neutralise the antigens on the pathogens. – activated cells for memory B cells

Answer 27

The activation of T and B cells leads to a production of memory cells. These remain in the body sometimes for years, and control the stronger and more rapid immune response if they Encounter the same antigen in the future. This can prevent a second infection, or prevent infection from developing into disease. vaccines work by stimulating a primary immune response, which produces T and B memory cells. In the event of an infection, the secondary immune response is triggered.

Answer 28

– In voluntary inflammatory response is similar to the bodies response to infection. It is described as involuntary because it happens automatically and can involve increase blood flow and metabolic rate, redness, pain and swelling. – the proliferation phases whether the tissue repair takes place. Some key processes are: – formation of blood clot to reduce blood loss and prevent entry of pathogens. – removal of dead or damaged body cells by phagocytosis – Growth of new tissue to replace the damage tissue

Answer 29

– involuntary inflammatory response – loss of organ function; some organs can stop working partially or totally – bone structure deformity, damage or loss of structure (fracture) – haemorrhaging, including bleeding at the side of injury and bruising (bleeding under intact skin) – Multi organ failure, inflammatory responses severe –ischaemia, decrease in blood supplies to tissues leading to a decrease in supply of nutrients and oxygen; it can, if severe, cause ischaemic shock (Known as “going into shock”) which can lead to organ failure and death if not trade correctly. If the trauma or subsequent shock is not fatal, the body goes through a proliferation phase similar to that described above

Answer 30

memorise scanner see some strong magnetic fields and radio waves generate detailed images of the inside of the body. Unlike x-rays, an MRI machine will show details of staff tissue and is used extensively diagnosis of soft tissue injuries (tendon or ligament damage), as well as to identify the presence of tumours. The powerful magnetic fields generated by the MRI scanner was strongly attract any metal objects. – patient medical history must be taken to avoid this to identify whether the patient has any medical implants containing metals such as pacemaker or ICD used to control a regular heartbeat, metal plates, wires or screw for bone fracture, contraceptive coil (IUD) The presence of any of these may not mean the patient cannot have an MRI scan but special precautions are needed Patient can normally eat drink and take medication on the day of the scan, but all external metallic objects will have to be removed

Answer 31

– Incident is the probability of a medical condition occurring in the population in a specified time period. It is a measure of the rate at which new cases occur. – prevalence is the proportion of population of affected by medical conditions as specific times. Is usually expressed as a percentage, fraction or number of cases per size of population, for example 10 cases per thousand – morbidity refers to any physical or psychological state that is thought to be outside of normal well-being. More simply, it describes illness or ill health. – mortality means death, caused by a particular disease. – Mortality rate is the rate which a disease causes death, for example and deaths per year

Answer 32

The study of analysis of the distribution of patterns of disease in populations and why diseases occur this allows us to understand how to prevent and treat disease

Answer 33

how epidemiology is used – identifying the cause of a disease, for example identifying the contaminated water causes cholera. – determinating the extent of the disease, measuring incident and prevalence of a disease helps measure the extent – studying the diseases progression. trend and patterns can show how the disease spread and my actions might need to be needed. Tracking the mortality rate indicates severity of the disease or also the effect of any therapeutics. – planning on evaluating preventative and therapeutic measures preventative measures such as vaccination and therapeutic measures such as drug treatment can be implemented and then monitored, So we can evaluate and, if necessary, improve them – developing public health policy and preventative measures. Prevention is usually more effective than cure.

Answer 34

improvement of or to : – nutrition – sanitation – housing – access to basic healthcare – education and health promotion

Answer 35

can be required to raise awareness for issues As well required behaviours to arrange of media: – deliver a clear message – will reach the target audience. – or express in a language recipient can relate to – does not cause a necessary anxiety

Answer 36

Government and public policy can change procedures, regulations or laws to enforce behaviours, for example restricting: – accessed drugs of abuse. – sales of God such as alcoholic cigarettes – Movement of people doing the epidemic or pandemic

Answer 37

Ignorance can be deadly. By improving knowledge, individuals can be empowered to adapt their own behaviour.

Answer 38

Targeted awareness racing and campaigns include: – change4life, a social marketing campaign by their PE to reduce childhood obesity by giving parents support to make healthier choices for their families. – annual vaccination, permitted through range of media, including posters and GP surgeries, radio adverts, emails, social media and lies vulnerable groups

Answer 39

Regulation of the internal environment, meaning physiological parameter such as the body temperature as well as the concentration of water, glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the blood

Answer 40

involves negative feedback, receptors and factors. Feedback systems involve: – the nervous system communicating between receptors and factors, via coordination centre such as the brain – the endocrine system, hormones are secreted in the blood in the response to receptors detect changes Horman then act on effectors (target audience) such as liver, kidney and muscles

Answer 41

oasis maintains stability and function of physiological systems and size whether there are changes to internal and external conditions that would otherwise prevent enzymes from functioning normally