B: How to Read People

Question 1

1. What was the 7-38-55 rule and what did it mean? What did it not mean?

Answer 1

The 7-38-55 Rule, often attributed to Albert Mehrabian, suggests that in communication:

7% of the message is conveyed through words,
38% through tone of voice,
55% through body language (non-verbal behavior).

However, this rule is widely misunderstood. Mehrabian’s research actually showed that these percentages only apply in situations where there is an inconsistency between the words and non-verbal cues, specifically when trying to convey feelings or attitudes. It does not mean that words are generally only 7% of communication in all contexts. Mehrabian’s findings emphasized that when tone and body language contradict the spoken words, people tend to trust the non-verbal cues more.

Question 2

2. What does the meta-perception literature tell us?

Answer 2

Meta-perception refers to our perceptions about how others perceive us. The literature on meta-perception highlights several key points:

Accuracy: People generally have a fair amount of insight into how they are perceived by others, especially for observable traits like extraversion or leadership abilities. However, accuracy tends to be lower for evaluative traits like intelligence or arrogance.

Bias: People often exhibit bias in their meta-perceptions, either overestimating or underestimating how others perceive them. This can occur at two levels: dyadic (specific to a particular individual) and generalized (how one is perceived by others in general).

Knowledge of Reputation vs. Specific Impressions: People are generally more aware of their reputation than specific impressions others have of them. For example, a person might know they are seen as extraverted overall but may not realize which specific individuals view them that way.

Question 3

3. How did physiognomy evolve from Lavater to today?

Answer 3

Physiognomy is the pseudoscientific practice of inferring psychological traits from physical appearance, especially facial features. It has a long history:

Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801): Lavater was one of the early popularizers of physiognomy. He legitimized it through widespread publications and debates, although his methods were later criticized and largely discredited. Despite the initial success of his ideas, physiognomy did not develop into a reliable scientific discipline.

Modern Perspectives: While traditional physiognomy is considered a pseudoscience, contemporary research acknowledges that people often form rapid judgments about others based on facial appearance—referred to as “naïve physiognomy.” These judgments can influence social interactions but are not scientifically valid for assessing character or personality traits.

Question 4

4. What is Paul Ekman’s contribution to facial expression research?

Answer 4

Paul Ekman made significant contributions to the study of facial expressions and their relation to emotions:

Universal Emotions: Ekman’s research demonstrated that certain facial expressions associated with emotions (like happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise) are universally recognized across different cultures, suggesting that these expressions are biologically innate rather than learned.

Micro-expressions: Ekman also studied micro-expressions—brief, involuntary facial expressions that reveal true emotions. His work showed that these micro-expressions can be key indicators of concealed emotions, although they are difficult to detect without specialized training.

Question 5

6. Describe and discuss the findings associated with research on conversations.

Answer 5

Research on conversations reveals several important insights:

Conversational Flow: A smooth and engaging conversational flow is crucial for building connections and predicting networking success. This flow is more important than individual traits like extraversion or attractiveness. Simple conversation etiquette, like turn-taking and avoiding long pauses, can enhance this flow.

Liking Gap: After initial conversations, people often underestimate how much their conversation partners like them—a phenomenon known as the “liking gap.” This happens because individuals tend to focus on their own perceived flaws during the conversation, rather than recognizing the positive impressions they make.

Topic Sensitivity: Certain topics, especially those related to personal achievements or controversial issues, can be off-putting and lead to less successful social interactions. Research suggests that while achievement-oriented topics distinguish work-related conversations, they may also create a sense of instrumentality that discourages future interactions.

Gossip: Gossip is a common aspect of workplace communication. It can strengthen relationships when the gossip is true or interesting, as it fosters a sense of shared knowledge and increases the likelihood of reciprocal help.

Question 5

5. What are the major strategies for recognizing emotions?

Answer 5

There are several strategies for recognizing emotions effectively:

Looking for Inconsistencies: Pay attention to mismatches between different channels of communication, such as when the tone of voice does not match facial expressions, or when body language contradicts verbal statements.

Detecting Micro-expressions: Micro-expressions are fleeting and often reveal suppressed or concealed emotions. Although these are hard to detect, they provide critical insights into a person’s true feelings. However, naturally detecting micro-expressions without tools or training is exceptionally difficult.

Understanding Cultural Display Rules: Emotions are expressed differently across cultures due to specific display rules. Understanding these rules can help in accurately interpreting emotional expressions in a culturally sensitive manner. For instance, some cultures may amplify or attenuate emotional expressions based on social norms.