b&b exam 2 Flashcards
apoptosis
the process of cell death due to deficiency of nerve growth factor
transneuronal degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease consists of
a process of degeneration of the postsynaptic connections of a neuron
studies comparing identical and fraternal twins raised together or apart by adoptive parents are particularly useful in sorting out the relative contributions of
heredity and environment (nature and nurture)
in spina bifida, the caudal portion of the neural tube fails to close normally, leading to
paralysis of the lower limbs
scientists theorize that homosexuality is caused
by a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences
Hebb synapses
are synapses strengthened by simultaneous activity
Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative condition associated with
loss of cognitive and emotional function
Nerve growth factor (NFG)
prevents apoptosis
the neuromuscular junction is
the chemical synapse between the axon termination of a motor neuron and a muscle fibre
damage to the right motor cortex can lead to deficits in control
of the left corner of the mouth
a cervical spinal cord injury produces
quadriplegia
degeneration of the basal ganglia can cause
Parkinson’s disease
according to the motor chauvinist view
movement provides the only means we have to interact with both the world and other people
a monosynaptic reflex requires the interaction of
two neurons at a single synapse
the lateral pathway
originates primarily in the cerebral cortex and controls voluntary fine movements
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by
difficulty initiating voluntary movements
damage to the lumbar region of spinal cord causes
paraplegia
to produce a certain trait we need (what genes)
two copies of the recessive gene of one copy of dominant gene
how many chromosomes do humans have
46, two pairs of 23
after two weeks from conception, a zygote becomes
an embryo
a cell formed by the merger of an egg and sperm in the first two weeks is called
a zygote
after eight weeks an embryo becomes
a fetus
what are the three bands of cells of the embryo
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
ectoderm develops into
the nervous system (and skin and hair), then the neural plate
the interior neural tube will become
the ventricles and central canal (brain and spinal cord)
in spina bifida, what portion of the neural tube fails to close
the caudal portion
spina bifida can cause
the paralysis of lower limbs
stages of the development of nervous system
neuron birth, migration of cells, differentiation into different types, connection formation, neural death, rearrangement of connections
use it or lose it refers to
death of synapses that are not used
neural plasticity states that
synapses change throughout lifetime
when the synapse is mature
the receptors are tightly clustered at synaptic sites
synaptic pruning
a period after synaptic overproduction when their number is reduced
the evidence that genetics play a significant role in sexual orientation is that
identical twins are more likely to have same sexual orientation than non-identical twins
when are the key periods of brain development
first two years of age,and ages 11 to 25
what happens during the second wave of brain development
problem-solving, controlling impulses, reasoning
Hubel and Wiesel proposed the existence of critical periods during which
the visual cortex can be modified by experience (cats)
who proposed the theory of imprinting
Lorenz
the deprivation in interaction in children raised in orphanages can be reversed
prior to 6 months of age
Down Syndrome/Trisomy 21is caused by
having three rather than two copies of chromosome 21
during which stage of cell division does abnormal division causing Down Syndrome happen
meiosis
damage to the neuron vs damage to the axon
damage to the neuron causes neural death
what happens during the anterograde degeneration
damaged segment of the axon separated from body cell after damage dies
damage to the CNS vs PNS
damaged axons in PNS can regrow (due to the response of the Schwann cells), and damage to the CNS is permanent
what is transneuronal degeneration
degeneration of the postsynaptic connections of a neuron
memory impairment in Alzheimer’s disease is caused by
deterioration in the hippocampus
language and problem-solving deficits in Alzheimer’s result from
damage to the cortex
emotional changes in Alzheimer’s result from
damage to the amygdala (or other limbic structures connected to the hypothalamus)
chemical vs electrical synapse
chemical uses neurotransmitters and electrical uses ions, chemical is slower and more specific and electrical is faster and can send one message to many neurons
excitatory vs inhibitory neurons
excitatory depolarizes, inhibitory hyperpolarizes
what is the name of liquid within spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid
chuvinist view states that
we need our brains only for movement, which provides us the only means to interact with the world
monosynaptic reflex requires the interaction of how many neurons
two neurons at a single synapse
monosynaptic reflex example
patellar tendon reflex (knee, quadriceps muscle),
polysynaptic reflexes involve how many synapses
more than one
polysynaptic reflex example
flexion reflex (taking the hand away when we touch sth hot)
when sensory neurons transmit info about a painful stimuli to interneurons in the spinal cord, they excite what neurons
the alpha motor neurons in the flexor muscles of the affected limb, alpha motor neurons in the opposing muscle (extensor) are inhibited
alpha motor neurons receive info through
the lateral pathway and the ventromedial pathway
what is the lateral pathway
located in the lateral part of the spinal column, and controls voluntary fine movements of hands, feet, and limbs
what is the ventromedial pathway
located along the ventromedial part of the spinal column and carries out commands for automatic movement in the neck and torso (posture, orienting the head)
what is the main source of voluntary motor control
primary motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus
what are the stages of movement
frontal and parietal lobes think about the movement and its risks and SMA and pre-SMA help with that, pre-SMA and SMA activation is followed by primary motor cortex activation, info flows down the lateral pathways to the spinal cord, initiating muscle contractions
the cerebellum is responsible for informing the motor cortex of
complex factors like direction, force, and timing and checks if the intended movements were what actually happened, it requires learning
cholinergic agonists at the neuromuscular junction
boost the activity of ACh
cholinergic antagonists at the neuromuscular junction
paralyze muscles leading to death
damage to the spinal cord causes paralysis of the muscles
below the level of damage
what is quadriplegia
the paralysis of both arms and legs after damage to the cervical or neck region of the spinal cord
what is paraplegia
paralysis of only the legs after damage to the lumbar region of the lower back
basal ganglia participate in what part of voluntary movement
choice and initiation
Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease (and OCD and ADHD) are connected to abnormalities in what brain region
basal ganglia
Parkinson’s disease is characterized by
progressive difficulty in movements, tremors in resting hand and frozen facial expressions
what causes Parkinson’s
when the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra in the brainstem degenerate
what is the standard treatment for Parkinson’s
levodopa (L-dopa) which boosts the activity of dopminergic neurons and acts to improve movement and coordination, or electrical stimulation with wires surgically implanted in the thalamus and connected to pulse generators near the collarbone generating steady electrical signal interfering with the tremor
according to the ideomotor theory of action
both observing and imagining an action excites the motor programs used to execute that same action
the discovery of mirror neurons (1st experiment, 1992) occurred when it was first observed that
the same neurons are activated both when a monkey grasps or sees grasping an object
according to the theory of embodied simulation
immersion in the other’s psychological states occurs through the mirror system
reciprocal imitation is key in
developing imitative behavior
theory of mind (TOM)
is the ability to attribute mental states to others
adults with Autistic syndrome disorder (ASD) can
mimic the facial expression of static basic emotions
sensorimotor associative learning is a
standard mechanism of Hebbian learning: sensory and motor neurons that fire together, wire together
direct matching between perception and action is
the fact that movement observation exerts an automatic influence on movement execution which was proved by Brass, Bekkering, Wohlschläger, and Prinz in their experiment where participants had to lift a certain figner in response to a number stimulus
which area was studied in the mirror neurons in monkeys in single-neuron recording
ventral premotor cortex (area F5) and inferior parietal lobule
what is imitation
an intentional process of learning available to even undeveloped individuals, including pre-verbal infants being a simple mechanism through which further cognitive, manual and sensory tools can be developed
Vittorio Gallese proposed that
we have a genetically predetermined tendency to develop mirror neurons that is nurtured by motor experience before and after birth
Meltzoff was convinced that imitation is
innate
what is temporal contingency
acting when someone else is acting
what is structural congruence
acting exactly like someone else is acting
according to Shimada and Hiraki the mirror neuron system
is already present at birth and flexibly modulated by motor experience and visuomotor learning
according to Cecilia Heyes mirror neurons get their matching properties through
sensorimotor associative learning (ASL): starting out as motor neurons, active only during the performance of an action, and then through the correlated experience of seeing and doing the same action they become strongly connected to visual neurons tuned to similar actions
Catmur suggests that imitation is
a simple associative mechanism that is present throughout life span
autism and mirror-neuron dysfunction
are not associated
what does Autistic syndrome disorder cause
deficits in social and emotional abilities, communication and language skills, restricted interests, and repetitive behaviors, it creates an inability to establish meaningful social communication and bonds, to establish visual eye contact with others, to share attention with others, and to understand others’ emotions and sensations
theory of mind helps us with
joint attention, understanding the meaning of gaze direction
